Coming Production>> Kembang Bungo Sakura (Monologue Series)

Kembang Bungo Sakura menampilkan empat karekter: Che Bungo Intan Berlian(55 tahun, seorang ibu rumah yang gigih berniaga untuk menyara keluarga), Yee(25 tahun, seorang transeksual yang hidup di desa sebagai Mak Andam), Kenanga(35 tahun, seorang transeksual yang menetap di singapura, asalnya dari keluarga Cina di Port Klang) & Che Hassan (55 tahun, pernah menjadi tahanan perang dunia II dan buruh keretapi maut di Burma). Pertemuan berlaku dalam tahun 1975 di Singapura. Saksikanlah nanti di panggung terdekat anda di Kuala Lumpur.

"Kota Sang Naga", Prequel to Chini

After the successful collaboration between storyteller: Zulkifli Mohamad, Director & Artistic Director: Hamzah Tahir and Children of Tunas Budaya - Jabatan Kesenian, Kebudayaan and Warisan, Wilayah Persekutuan, Chini, the children dance theatre was staged at the small theatre of Istana Budaya in September 2005. The production was an unlucky collaboration with the notorious producer consist of Mr.Mohzan, Ms.Intan Shahnaz and a Yayasan under the Ministry of Women, Family and Community Development). After 1 year rehearsal with the children and successful staging at the Istana Budaya, the producer failed to pay to the people involved, including 50 children performing. The writer is in the process of reporting the matter to the newspaper.

Despite of the unlucky collaboration, Zulkifli Mohamad is now ready with his requel to "Kota Sang Naga".

LALAK in NSTP Group Online

1. MA 04/12/2005 Melalak di Panggung DBKL Oleh ABIE ABDULLAH (387 wds)
MAHU atau tidak, perlu diakui dunia tarian di Malaysia kian malap. Sejak persembahan Emas 10 September di Istana Budaya tahun lalu, artistik itu bagaikan hilang daripada pandangan persada seni negara. Bukan tiada penonton. Buktinya, persembahan tarian dari French Dance Troupe di KL Pac baru-baru ini mendapat sambutan memberangsangkan.



2. MM 02/12/2005 Howling on stage By Amir Hafizi (758 wds)
WHEN people say lalak or melalak, the image they usually try to convey would either be kids yelling hysterically or a teenager singing in the bathroom relying more on passion rather than talent. Probably that's what five Malaysian choreographers wanted to portray through their contemporary dance anthology. Well, at least they're doing it with a whole bucket-load of talent.



3. BM 27/11/2005 Lalak selit tragedi Tak Bai Oleh Roslen Fadzil (325 wds)
KEMELUT yang pernah melanda tanah air mahupun negara serantau seperti tragedi tsunami serta pertumpahan darah di Tak Bai, Thailand adalah antara peristiwa hitam yang sukar dilupakan. Ia menarik perhatian semua termasuklah sekumpulan koreografer yang akan beraksi dalam satu kolaborasi tarian kontemporari menarik berjudul Lalak. Persembahan yang julung kali dianjurkan Dewan Bandaraya Kuala Lumpur (DBKL) dengan kerjasama Svarnabhumi Studio (SVB) itu akan dipentaskan di Panggung Bandaraya, Kuala Lumpur mulai 2 hingga 4 Disember ini.

LALAK

LALAK, A Contemporary Dance Theatre Production
Venue: Panggung Bandaraya, Sultan Abdul Samad Building,
Jalan Raja, 50506, Kuala Lumpur
Date & Time: Fri 2 - Sun 4 Dec 2005 Telephone: 03-2699 3872

Synopsis: The word 'Lalak' means to scream or yell loudly. This word just about sums up what the five gifted choreographer/dancers are longing to do - scream out against our increasingly materialistic world, where Western values are lauded and where art has taken a backseat to everything else. Lalak is also meant to be a dialogue that questions the integrity of Malay people in this era of globalisation.
The five choreographers who have joined forces to produce this are Syed Mustapha, Jasni Ahmad, Hamid Chan, Junainah Long and Zulkifli Mohamad. They have produced two dances each, one solo piece (where they will perform their own dance) and one group piece.

The program:
Choreographer: Syed Mustapha
Solo Piece: Keliru
Group Piece: Om Bak

Choreographer: Jasni Ahmad
Solo piece: Argo-Gede
Group Piece: Episod Hanuman

Choreographer: Hamid Chan
Solo piece: Paroiku
Group Piece: Kukuda

Choreographer: Junainah Long
Solo piece: Untitled I – Suara Tubuh
Group Piece: Untitled II - Wanita

Choreographer: Zulkifli Mohamad
Solo piece: 1914:2004
Group Piece: Jadi Jawa Jawi

Produced by Dewan Bandaraya Kuala Lumpur in collaboration with Svarnabhumi(SVB) Studio.

Links: http://www.dbkl.gov.my/panggung/index.php
Public Rating: (5 votes)
User Comments:

most wanted performance Sun, Dec 04 2005 17:26:06
satu persembahan yang menarik.setiap kareografer mempunyai daya tari yang dapat menarik penonton untuk terus duduk dikerusi.
posted by colourfull chicken situmas@yahoo.com
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syabas dbkl! Good Start! Mon, Dec 05 2005 02:54:38
Satu event yang seharusnya menjadi aktiviti tahunan dbkl. Harapnya memberi nafas baru kepada artis budaya dbkl untuk menerokai dunia kontemporari.
posted by anjung anjungtari@yahoo.com
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bolehlah... Wed, Dec 07 2005 15:22:02
tahniah kepada penari yang menjayakan lalak...
ada sesetengah koreografi itu memang menarik. dan ada juga yang menarik.
ada sesetengah koreogari yang menggunakan lagu yang sama dengan kereografi saudara en sukarji dari I.K.J UNTUK KOREOGRAFINYA yang berjudul MANOHARA semasa tari 2005.
kebanyakan koreografi ini menggunakan lagu dari seberang iaitu dari indonesia...
seperti yang kita tahu malaysia kurang khususnya pemuzik yang memgeluarkan lagu2 seperti yang dibuat oleh karyawan muzik indonesia iaitu lagu yang berunsurkan relax dan sebagainya....
tapi tak apa itu bukannya menghalang koreografer di malaysia untuk berkarya.. tak semestinya koreografi kontemporari yang menggunakan muzikkan...
tepuk dada fikirkan sendiri...
bye.....
posted by anak seni yang merdeka firdaus5419@yahoo.com
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bolehla.... Mon, Dec 12 2005 01:44:04
Exactly,this was my 1st time watching this kind of event, what we call that because i don't know much about it (please inform if i made a mistake).For me okla walaupun x faham but i can still enjoy the event,i bukannya minat sangat tapi i learned something new about drama tarian it give me some new experience in my life,drama tarian LALAK dari apa yang saya lihat ia merupakan satu drama tarian yang mana penari mengeluarkan satu expresi emosi,wajah,sikap yang boleh dikatakan abstract untuk dilihat.Walaupun begitu gandingan beberapa choreographer menjadikan drama tarian itu hidup.so that all from me.....arsyad
posted by muhammad arsyad arsyad85@yahoo.com.sg
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La La La Lak Wed, Dec 14 2005 15:47:16
Terima kasih orang yang menonton dan komen2 yang ada, amat berterima kasih. Kita ni masih baru dalam dunia tari kontemporari di Malaysia. Kalau ada sambutan kita akan meneruskan perjuangan ini, insyallah. Sememangnya Lalak menghidangkan perbagai bentuk tradisi tari kontemporari yang mungkin menarik perhatian orang yang berbeza, walaupu itu hanyalah secara kebetulan. Kita berharap tahun hadapan kita akan menampilkan karya-karya baru dari koreografer yang lain pula dan mungkin juga koreografer antarabangsa, sekurang-kurangnya dari ASEAN dan Asia kalau tidak dari benua lain. Seseungguhnya tari melayu di Malaysia tu ada pelbagai peringkat pengembangannya. Kita juga harus menyimpan khazanah yang lama kita ada seperti Mak Yong, Manora, Asyik, Gamelan, Terinai dsb. Selamat menonton.
Semuga seni tanahair terus berkembang.

SEA Films; SEA in Paris

Bingo : in Paris "Be with me" is played at this very same cinema near Pompidou where they gave the Thaï film.
Natalie, Paris, France

> Objet : Re: Singapore and SEA movie
>
> Hello Natalie and friends
> Great. Where are they showing that in Paris? The last
> time I was there, they were showing "Iron Ladies" the
> Thai movie on drag queens playing valleyball at the
> cinema near Pompidu. Probably more Thi movies showed
> in France like Tropical Malady. Late last year I also
> watch another briliant Thai "Citizen Dog". Early this
> year I watched an Indonesian movie similar to Citizen
> Dog called "Banyu Biru"(helly was the publicist for
> that). In KL thi year too I watch few more Indo Films
> like "Unggu Violet" "Tentang Cinta". Perhaps Malaysian
> better movie would be "sepet" shown in Cannes about
> young teenage girl fell in love with young chinese boy
> in a small town in Malaysia.
>
> Jim, I have great meeting with Jin Xiang and an audio
> docu film director and two poets in Shanghai during my
> ICAS conference.
>
> Jean Pascal. my god have not seen you for a long time.
> How's India? I just got my DR and will start looking
> for job again, anywhere in the world. But now enjoying
> making contemporary dance in malaysia as well as
> writing for internet arts magazine (www.kkiseni.com),
> also teaching part time for Arts Management at local
> uni.
>
> Azizah, any new film in Jakarta.
>
> Next year I am organiing Asia Documentary Film Forum
> in KL. Please send me something if you have anything.
>
> Hppy Eid
>
> Zul
> www.svarnabhumi.blogpot.com

>
> > Dear All,
> > Just to tell you I have seen an excellent
> > Singaporian film:
> > "Be with me" from Eric Khoo.
> > Nothing to do with the Marlin, Raffles and other
> > glittering symbols.
________________
Natalie Guignabaudet
Paris France

Race and Bronze Theory, and SEA Performing Arts

---js228 wrote:

> Dear Khun Zulki,
> I just had a time to read your article about
> Langasuka in full. Excellent
> work!!! I really enjoy that though
> I have a different theory concerning Srivijaya as
> the federation of the
> nautical princely city-states in
> Java, Sumatra and mainland Southeast Asia.
> Well...after reading several claims I tend to
> believe that there were no real
> centre of power in this
> region, but many city-states that were tied togeter
> by trades and family
> connection. Jayavarman II of
> Angor was the Sailendra from Java. The legend from
> the present day south of
> Thailand tells the story of
> a prince who arrived in Patani whose son found the
> city of U-Thong in Chao
> Praya river basin. The
> present Thai language itself (though the royal thai
> academy love to associate
> it with Tai-Kadai) is a
> creole language, which is a combination of different
> languages including
> Javanese & Malay. I myself am
> a descendant of Sultan Sulaiman of Singora who was
> of Persian stock from Java.
> Therefore, I strongly believe in the importance of
> transmigration and
> interactions between cultural
> group in the process of cultural formation of
> Southeast Asia. I have found the
> 'Race Theory' in the
> exisiting tradition of historical writing
> unstatisfactory and misleading. They
> create more conflict than
> understanding of how we became the way we are and
> how we want to be in the
> future.
> At the moment I am reading the history of Southeast
> Asian performing arts
> through the
> interpretation of bronze drums from Dongson Culture.
> Your account of
> Mayong/Manora and Naga is
> very useful as it helps me to be able to link many
> thing together. I will send
> a copy to you when I finish
> writing. I feel
> that you are one of a handful
> people I could discuss thing Southeast Asian with.
> Regards,
> Golf
>
> Jirayudh SINTHUPHAN

MAWI and PAS MALAYSIA

SO MAWI IS CELEBRATING KOTA BHARU AS ISLAMIC CITY OF MALAYSIA ON 1 OCTOBER. IT IS INTERESTING TO SEE HOW THE DIFFERENT CAMPS OF PAS HAVE DIFFERENT OPINIONS, WHICH IS VALID TO DISCUSS. BUT AT THE END OF THE DAY NIK AZIZ HAS HIS GOOD POINT. BRAVO NIK AZIZ

Last Nite in Shanghai and Giant Leap

It was my last nite in Shanghai. I came back to my funny hotel Joyage and found a note from my Berliner academic. He was drinking at with his German friend at a Shanghainese friend. I went and found myself discussing about living in Shanghai, where to stay out of Shanghai, to make money or to make art and next talking about their German rock band singing in Chinese. Next, this Shaihainese friend showed his new audio documentary video, mostly inspired by Giant Leap project. Then I told him that I was on it too, where they interviewed me and dance on it too. He was so impressed with the project and like to follow that. As for me, I have not seen it on tv except that I was told that the programme was shown on Discovery Channel and National geographic before Christmas 2002.

Border Crossing

So more people were killed in South Thailand, nearer to us now in Sungai Golok, two minutes cross from Rantau Panjang, Kelantan, 15 mins from my house in Pasir Mas actually. 131 people ran to Malaysia yesterday and Taksin wanted them back. Of course Thai government has declared South under "Emergency" status and they could arrest anyone, which is very unfair!!!!!!

For us, we only watch telivision and we could just switch off the telly!

I got a phone call from an america-french friend in Bangkok saying that nothing much of modern dance making in Bangkok. He is just taking and giving dance classes. And he though we have better luck in Kuala Lumpur. Are we?

Queens of Pattani

The Queens of Pattani



If stories give life to a place, those of the four queens of Pattani recall laughter and tears, love and revenge that shaped a chatpter of the little known history of this Islamic maritime kingdom about sex centuries ago. Subhatra Bhumiprabhas and Natiya Tangwisutijit trace the facinating story of the queens

Nobody knows what Princess Ijau might have thought when she ascended the throne as the first queen of Pattani in 1584.

After the death of her father, Sultan Manzur Syah, in 1572, Ijau and her two younger sisters had to endure 12 traumatic years witnessing brothers and cousins killing one another in their battle for the throne. The conflict was resolved when all of the male heirs were assassinated, paving the way for Ijau's ascension.

Today's historians - and, indeed, ancient European traders and travellers who arrived in the Islamic kingdom - had different views about Pattani's century-long rule by women. Some opinions appear more favourable than others. But the predominant conclusion was that Queen Ijau and her sisters who succeeded to the throne were no more than puppet monarchs. Behind them must have been capable male ministers who governed in her name without the queens' actual participation.

French traveller Nicholas Gervaise, for example, wrote in the 1680s that Raja Ijau was not allowed to enter at all into the secrets of state affairs.

"[The queen] had to content herself with the respect and homage which everyone formally rendered her as their sovereign," Gervaise was quoted in "Hikayat Pattani", a classic Malay account of the history of this Islamic kingdom.

"They [the ministers] did not allow her the freedom to choose her own high officials, but they never refused her anything which could contribute to her pleasure," he wrote.

Such a view, however, could not properly explain why under the rule of the queens, especially the first two, Pattani reached its greatest prosperity from maritime trade with Europe, Japan and around Southeast Asia. Prices for commodities, particularly foodstuffs, were at an all time low, pleasing the rich and poor under their reigns alike. Farmers were also recorded to have enjoyed irrigation projects initiated and supervised by the queens.

If they were just puppets, how did the three sisters succeed one another in a row? The youngest sister even managed to have her daughter become queen as well. They all survived several coup attempts amid a fluctuating political situation in the region. All the men who challenged their power were "dealt with" in different ways. Nobody knows what actually happened to them, but they were never seen again.

Reading between the lines, scattered historical accounts suggest the queens were capable rulers who knew how to play both internal and regional politics. In other words, the ancient kingdom of Pattani prospered "because of", and not "in spite of", the queens.

The three sisters - Ijau, Biru and Ungu - succeeded one another from 1584 to 1635. Their father named them after the colours of the rainbow - Ijau means green, Biru is blue and Ungu is violet. Whether the rainbow connotation was intended as a good omen, the princesses did have a shining future - they all made their way to the prestigious throne without much struggle.

Raja Ijau ruled for 31 years before she died, and passed the throne to her second sister Biru, who led the kingdom for seven years. The throne then passed to the third sister, Ungu, who reigned for 12 years.

Among them, Ungu was the only one married. Her sister Ijau made her the bride of Sultan Abdul-Ghafur Mohaidin Syah of Pahang, another influential kingdom on the Malay Peninsula. Princess Ungu gave birth to a charming daughter, Kuning, who succeeded her mother as the monarch. She reigned for about 50 years in what was one of the wealthiest and longest reigns for the region.

Perhaps Raja Ijau's understanding of regional politics was deeper than her ministers might have realised. She had Princess Ungu marry the sultan of Pahang, given the close connections between Pahang and Johore at the time, and also tightened relations with Johore, another strong political centre on the peninsula.

In retrospect, Raja Ijau turned to concentrate on strengthening relations with neighbouring kingdoms because Pattani became relatively independent from the influence of Ayutthaya, the powerful inland kingdom. Ayutthaya, from 1564 to the 1590s, was struggling for its own survival against Burma and Cambodia.

Secure politics entailed economic prosperity. Pattani itself was among the best natural harbours along the lengthy east coast of the Malay peninsula. The mid-sized kingdom enjoyed long-distance trade with China and India, as well as localised trade with Siam, Malaya and Indonesia. It served as an entrepot to which pepper could be brought from the neighbouring lands for Chinese merchants in return for luxury textiles and porcelain. At the same time Indian textiles were brought to Pattani in exchange for gold, spices and foodstuffs.

Raja Ungu knew her marriage to the sultan of Pahang was to secure political and economic prosperity for Pattani. Love was not a part of it. To her, the marriage was for the "love for her land". Her situation was not much different from other women of other kingdoms in the region in the same period. Their parents sent them as "gifts" for rulers of kingdoms they wanted to make friends with for their protection or other security purposes.

However, what was different for Ungu was that she returned to Pattani and became queen after Raja Biru passed away. Her daughter, Kuning, followed in her footstep decades later by marrying into politics and for the love of her motherland.

Raja Ijau died in 1616 and was succeeded by Raja Biru. It was Raja Biru who sent her ministers to Pahang to request the return of Queen Ungu after she became a widow when Sultan Abdul-Ghafur Mohaidin Syah died. Ungu also brought with her Princess Kuning, who was then four years old.

Princess Kuning was only 12-years-old when her monarch aunt Raja Biru arranged her marriage to a nobleman from Siam, Okya Decho, a son of the ruler of Ligor, or Nakhon Si Thammarat, who served the king of Ayutthaya. By the end of the 16th century, Ayutthaya's power was on the rise again during the reign of King Naresuan.

At the time, no one could read the heart of Princess Ungu, who watched her daughter's wedding in silence.

Soon after Raja Biru died, however, Raja Ungu, who succeeded her sister in 1624, arranged for her daughter to be remarried to the Sultan of Johore. Indeed, Pattani under the reign of Ungu adopted an anti-Siam policy. Unlike her two predecessors, Ungu refused to allow herself to be called by the Siamese royal title Phra Chao.

Perhaps, Okya Decho would not have asked to return to Nakhon Si Thammarat had he known he would not be allowed to take his young wife with him.

When informed of the new wedding of his wife, a furious Okya Decho asked for permission from the king of Siam to lead Siamese troops to attack Pattani. To aid her defence, Ungu received support from her late husband's state, Pahang, and the Sultan of Johore also led his troops to help his mother-in-law. The Siamese troops weren't familiar with sea warfare. The week-long war ended with the heart-broken Okya Decho returning home empty handed.

The love story of Princess Kuning didn't end there, but continued dramatically until her last breath. Raja Ungu died in 1635 and Kuning succeeded her mother to the Pattani throne. After the funeral ceremony, Kuning's husband left Pattani for his homeland. The sultan asked his younger brother and his mother to stay in Pattani to guard Kuning from her ex-husband Okya Decho.

But the sultan had left the fish with the cat. The prince of Johore went too far from the role of protector. The Malay historical account of Hikayat Pattani stated that the prince "violated" Kuning. However, the prince did not seem to have Kuning's heart for long. Raja Kuning found her lover had committed adultery with a court singer. The prince of Johore appeared to be madly in love with the singer whom he planned to give a royal title.

However, many ministers and the people took the queen's side. They volunteered to "deal" with the problem for her. Raja Kuning only asked her men to spare the prince's life. The prince was never seen in Pattani again. He safely returned to Johore while the prince's mother and their people were later escorted by the queen's men to their homeland as well.

No matter how chaotic her personal life, Raja Kuning never forgot her duty as the ruler of Pattani. During her reign, Pattani returned to the glorious era of international trade. The queen ordered her men to expand the mouth of the Pattani River and to dredge the river's tideway to welcome an increasing number of cargo barges. The bay of Pattani shone with lights from trader junks day and night. The Hikayat Pattani noted that the last queen didn't live on royal revenues, she made her income from the crops in her own gardens, feeding and clothing herself from the profits on the flowers and vegetables. Moreover, she turned her personal possessions into royal property.

Unlike her mother, who was hostile to Ayutthaya, Raja Kuning decided to make friends with the larger kingdom by paying a visit in 1641. The queen of Pattani was welcomed by King Prasat Thong of Siam. They re-established relations and Siam promised to end its interference in Pattani, at least during the reign of Raja Kuning.

A decade later, nonetheless, Kuning was forced to leave the throne by Raja Sakti of Kalantan who staged a coup in 1651 after she failed to handle the internal conflict between the sultan and another prince. On her way to seek refuge in Johore, the last queen of Pattani died near the shore of Kalantan. Her body was buried in a small village called Kampung Pancor.

The queen's laughter and tears and her "love for the land" was also buried there.


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Ayutthaya versus Pattani in the 'era of rebellion'



While many historians believe that Pattani had been a tributary state of Siam since time immemorial, and gradually incorporated to become an integral part of Siam, more-recently discovered journals of travellers and merchants of the era suggest otherwise.

The struggle to control Pattani was more than merely starting a few minor rebellions, as simplified in Thai chronicles. The resistance Pattani put up was determined, with residents of Pattani impassioned to defend the local Malay culture and determined to keep alive the historical ideal of an independent state of Pattani.

Jaramias van Vliet, the Dutch official of the Verenigde Oost-Indische Campagnie (VOC), or Dutch East Indies Company, who assumed a post at Ayutthaya in 1633, wrote about the Pattani rebellion during the earlier reign of King Maha Chakkrabat. He stated that Pattani had often sent tribute to Ayutthaya.

Later on, when King Prasartthong staged a coup and crowned himself in 1630, Raja Ungu, the ruler of Pattani, objected to paying tribute to the newly self-installed king. Apart from this affront to Ayutthaya, Pattani even sent troops to attack Phatthalung and Nakhon Si Thammarat, seized two vessels departing from Ayutthaya, and transported Chinese goods to Batavia.

In late 1633, Ayutthaya recruited troops to subjugate Pattani again, but had to delay the campaign for a year. In the middle of this intense atmosphere of war, the Raja of Kedah intervened and assisted in a reconciliation between the parties. King Prasartthong changed his mind and Ayutthaya sent a diplomatic mission to negotiate with Pattani again.

In March, 1636, during the reign of Raja Kuning, a Pattani diplomat came up to Ayutthaya. A preliminary agreement resulted in a "very important person" of Pattani coming up to the Ayutthaya court in August of the same year to pay a tribute of golden flowers to King Prasartthong. Pattani continued to pay tribute to Ayutthaya for several years. It is recorded as doing so in June 1639, while Kedah did her part in August of the same year. The situation, however, changed when Pattani joined Kedah and Songkhla to resist Ayutthaya during 1646-9. They even sent troops to attack and occupy Nakhon Si Thammarat for some time in 1649.

In late 1649, Ayutthaya sent troops to suppress the rebellion again. There is no detailed evidence about the battle, but it turned out that in September 1650, two ships of Songkhla brought a peace message with the usual golden flowers to pay homage to King Prasartthong.

Excerpt from a paper entitled "Ayutthaya in Pattani's Grasp: Historical Writings and Local History" presented by Davisakd Puaksom, Institute of Liberal Arts, Walailak University Nakhon Si Thammarat, at The First Inter-Dialogue Conference on Southern Thailand held in Pattani

Pattani

Pattani
Related: Thailand Geography

(both: pät´tänē´) or Patani , city (1990 pop. 41,605), capital of Pattani prov., S Thailand, on the east coast of the Malay Peninsula, near the mouth of the Gulf of Thailand. It is a port and the center of a region producing most of the spices grown in Thailand, as well as rubber and coconuts. Tin is mined and smelted, salt is extracted, and nests for bird's-nest soup are harvested. The people are for the most part Malay Muslims. Pattani was a seat of the Sailendra power during the Sailendra domination of the Malay Peninsula and later was the center of a Malay state, which was drawn into the Thai orbit. With Ayutthaya , it was one of the first places in Siam opened to the Portuguese in the 16th cent. At first bound only by tenuous links of suzerainty to the courts of Ayutthaya and Bangkok, against which it was several times in revolt, Pattani was reduced to provincial status in the 19th cent.

Pattani

Pattani Malay
A minority majority

Although the Pattani Malay make up only four percent of Thailand's population, they are the majority population within the five southernmost provinces of the country.

In addition to their location, the Pattani Malay are separate from the rest of Thailand in a number of ways. They are Malay in their race, heritage, language and culture. While Thailand is 94 percent Buddhist, almost all of the Pattani Malay are Muslim.

Traditional Pattani wear clothing which reflects their Muslim tradition. The majority speak Jawi, a Malay dialect.

The Pattani were a Malay people with a powerful kingdom that was overtaken by the Thai. They understand themselves to be a different people living under the Thai kingdom. Pattani often intermarry with the Malay across the Malaysian border rather than with the Thai.

The mosque and the community

The mosque and Muslim festivals and observance play an integral part in the life of the Pattani Malay people. The mosque is a place not only for religious practices, but also the place where cultural identity is expressed. It provides education and is at the center of community celebrations in these fishing and farming communities.

As a leader of the mosque, the Imam is often regarded as the leader of the village or community. Because there is a level of distrust of some Thai governmental authorities, who are Buddhist and speak only Thai, many of the Pattani turn to the mosque and Muslim religious and community leaders to provide a channel for voicing their concerns.

Another important figure in Pattani religious life is the "bomoh." The bomoh is a folk healer that acts as a mediator or median between the spirit world and the earthly world. He provides fortune telling as well.

Despite their resistance to the Thai language and culture, the Pattani have adopted the Thai belief in "phi's" or ghosts. So in reality, the Pattani practice a blend of Islam, folk and animist beliefs.

Population: +\- 2 to 3 million
Religion: Sunni Muslim
Language: Malay dialect; Thai
Geographical location/s: Five southern provinces of Thailand; substantive community in Bangkok, Thailand
Percentage evangelized (access to the gospel): 25 percent

Profile: Tradition: gone with the tide

One of the Pattani Malay's more colorful traditions, the "kolae" fishing boats are becoming more and more rare along the coast of southern Thailand. The kolae are striking because of the intricate paintings that grace the side of these long wooden boats. Beautifully carved and painted, most kolae display the image of the naga, a powerful mythical creature of the sea.

Built to last, these hand-crafted vessels are usually passed down from father to son. Many fishermen try to continue the tradition by refurbishing old kolae, because it is so expensive to buy a new one. There are only a few craftsmen left who make and paint the trawlers.

Bloody River - Tak Bai, Yala, Pattani

So they shot more people yesterday in Tak Bai. What do we do as Malaysians?

Blood Across the River - Tak Bai, Yala, Pattani

So we heard that 2 more people were killed yesterday in Tak Bai in Narathiwat Province, which is just across the river from Pengkalan Kubor, Tumpat, Kelantan. So what do we do as neighbour? As another Malay, another Muslim? as Malaysian? Are we going to boycott visiting Thailand? Bangkok? Phuket? How many of us would do that? What is ASEAN doing about it? UN?

I like to dedicate a piece called 19142004, connecting a piece of history from 1914 when the British slaughtered Tok Janggut in Kota Bharu Kelantan when the man tried to talk to people about what British did to them in Kelantan. He was slashed into 14 pieces and showed to the people in Kota Bharu. In 2004 600 people across the river - Tak Bai, Pattani, Yala and Narathiwat Province I Thailand were killed, just before Tsunami in Phuket. 100 people were killed in the mosque in Pattani. What do we have to say about that? Are we going to be arrested by Thai Government when we express ourself, when we cross the border shopping in Sungai Golok?

Preparing for Kota Si Naga2 - Naga: The Serpent

The word Naga is rooted in Sanskrit and means "Serpent". In the East Indian pantheon it is connected with the Serpent Spirit and the Dragon Spirit. It has an quivalency to the Burmese Nats, or god-serpents. In the Esoteric Tradition it is synonymous for Adepts, or Initiates. In India and Egypt, and even in Central and South America, the Naga stands for one who is wise.

Nagarjuna of India, for example, is shown with an aura, or halo, of seven serpents which is an indication of a very high degree of Initiation. The symbolism of the seven serpents, usually cobras, are also on Masonic aprons of certain systems in the Buddhistic ruins of Cambodia (Ankhor) and Ceylon. The great temple-builders of the famous Ankhor Wat were considered to be the semi-divine Khmers. The avenue leading to the Temple is lined with the seven-headed Naga. And even in Mexico, we find the "Naga" which becomes "Nagal." In China, the Naga is given the form of the Dragon and has a direct association with the Emperor and is known as the "Son of Heaven"...while in Egypt the same association is termed "King-Initiate". The Chinese are even said to have originated with the Serpent demi-gods and even to speak their language, Naga-Krita. For a place that has no serpents, Tibet, they are still known in a symbolic sense and are called "Lu!" (Naga). Nagarjuna called in Tibetan, Lu-trub.

In the Western traditions we find the sae ubiquity for the Naga, or Serpent. One simple example is the Ancient Greek Goddess, Athena. She is known as a warrior Goddess as well as the Goddess of Wisdom; her symbol being the Serpent as displayed on her personal shield. Of course, in Genesis the Serpent is a Naga who instructs the new infant (humanity) in what is called the Knowledge of Good and Evil. The Christian church has, unfortunately transformed the Initiate-Teacher into a tempting and negative demon-character. An apocryphal tradition says that Apollonius of Tyana, while on a visit to India, was taught by the "Nagas" of Kashmir. (See The Life of Apollonius, by Philostratos.) It is felt by many scholars of the Western Tradition that the life of Apollonius was taken from the New Testament, or that the narratives of the New Testament have been taken from the life of Apollonius. This is felt because of ! the undisputed and clear similarities of construction fo that particular narrative.

Naga is one of a handful of rare words surviving the loss of the first universal language. In Buddhism, Wisdom has always been ties, symbollically, to the figure of the Serpent. In the Western Tradition it can be found as used by the Christ in the Gospel of Saint Matthew (x.16), "Be ye therefore as serpents, and harmless as doves."

In all mythological language the snake is also an emblem of immortality. Its endless representation with its tail in its mouth (Ouroboros), and the constant renewal of its skin and vigor, enliven teh symbols of continued youth and eternity.

The Serpent's reputation for positive medicinal and/or life-preserving qualities have also contributed to the honors of the Serpent as STILL seen by the employment of the Caduceus. To this very day, the Hindus are taught that the end of every Universal Manifestation (Kalpa) all things are re-absorbed into Deity and the the interval between "creations." He reposes upon the Serpant Sesha (Duration) who is called Ananta, or, Endlessness. (See Ophiolatreiaby Hargrave Jennings)

by Soror Ourania
Reprinted from Thelemix and Therion Rising

Merdeka! Merdeka! Merdeka!

My Japanese friend asked me to take him to Putra Jaya this morning to watch the Independence Parade. I said that he could watch on tv, all channels will be showing. Then he said I am not true Malaysian. hem.....interesting. I sticked that BP ball with little Malaysian flag on it and I have Malaysian flag sapu tangan in my car, ready for any event. And I am sure I cant beat other people. Last last after midnite I went to buy nasi lemak in Pantai Dalam stall and saw whole crowd just came back from the Merdeka Celebration and this one old man wearing Malaysian flag from head to toe, reminded me of Late Sudirman except this old man was really old. Made me thinking, I wish would not be like that when I am old. Yesterday I commented to a friend-guru-brother of mine that the celebration is more like product placement and event for many companies in Malaysia. Well, that's our Malaysian soil is coming to be. I told my Japanese friend that the event at Putra Jaya is for policians and their voters. However, I still felt about it and remember that I used to watch the parade on tv every year when I was small. Announcer Mahadhir Lokman was good, the kids were so honest about their performance and seeing the King and Queen doing the things made me realised that we are a peaceful country and we hace a lot more to do towards 2020 civil society, the level of arts performance etc. The whole nite of concerts made me sleeping in my living room and straight to Merdeka Parade. After I watch Hotel Rwanda and criend and cried. This is the the kind of film that they should show on tv on Merdeka day. We have too much of singing concerts, cooking programmes and make over even on Merdeka day. It made me think "What have we done to help our Muslim Brothers and Sister across the Thai border? They are still killing our own people, Malay, Muslim?"

Chini's gone, but we have not got paid!

Chini, the production ended on 14 August 2005 at Isttana Budaya. But until today, more than two weeks after the show, we still have not got paid. We wonder what happened to the production company, Mufira with Mohzam and Intan Shahnaz as the key persons. They told us before that many company sponsor us but the money went out from Yayasan Kebajikan Negara (Under Ministry of Welfare, Women and Family - Datok Shahrizat) esp.during Tsunami. Can we believe that? recently also the Star newspaper reported that many companies in Malaysia cheated many people and organisation with the charity status. The Chini production was supposed to be staged a year ago but been postponed many times. No we wonder whether the money was used by the person of Yayasan Kebajikan Negara or Mofira, without the Minsister knowing. What should we do now? Report to newspaper? police report? minister?

'Kota Si Naga-Naga' (City of Nagas) akan menyusul selepas Chini

Chini baru selesai semalam. Whats's next? Actually I have the sequel Kota Si Naga-Naga, set underwater, linking the story about Naga in the Malay World and Southeast Asia - Tasik Chini, Pulau Tioman, Funan Kingdom, Naga of Songkran Festival di Thailand, Myanmar, Laos dan Cambodia.

Jien Travel to Tasik Chini

Travel Column
Jien 32, TV Host

What was the best item you've bought while travelling and where? Gifts for grateful friends: Tongkat Ali herbs (it's actually believed to be an aphrodisiac) from an Orang Asli village in Tasik Chini.

What was the best food you've tasted during your travels and where? Wow! I would have to say at an Orang Asli settlement in Tasik Chini. All we had was grilled toman fish with wild vegetables and chilli padi. Believe me it was the best meal ever – so simple, yet so tasty! Comments: So far I have been pretty lucky. No dramas and any mishaps on my trips. You should just take your time to really explore the place and enjoy your holiday!

Chini after TSSB

Tanah Serendah Sekebun Bunga
Venue: Dewan Bahasa & Pustaka
Jalan Dewan Bahasa, 50460, Kuala Lumpur
Date & Time: Feb 20-21, 2004 (8.30pm)
Tickets: 019-2459282
Ticket Contact: Zulkifli
Synopsis: Theatre company "Svarnabhumi Studio Kuala Lumpur" in collaboration with AXiA(Arts Xchange in Asia) presented a contemporary dance theatre performance, that take you back to a pre-Malacca era, to a time when this stretch of the peninsula was known as the Langkasuka Kingdom, nicknamed Tanah Serendah Sekebun Bunga. The dance theatre depicted the rule of a woman Raja Mas Chayam, her encounter with a seer, and the subsequent fall of the kingdom. Inspired from traditional dances like Mak Yong, Menora, Main Puteri, Wayang Kulit. The dance is choreographed and performed by three expert dancers, Hamzah Tahir, Zubin Mohamad and Mek Nab. The scenography is designed by Hamzah Tahir. The story is written by Zulkifli Mohamad based on folk tale.
The dance also will be starring Rosnani Nasir, Hasanol Farihan and will be accompanied by "Sewarna" musicians from Uitm.

Lake Chini Malaysia

Tasik Chini


Tasik Chini is one of the only two natural lakes in Peninsula Malaysia, both of which are located in the state of Pahang. Located approximately 100km from Kuantan town, the capital of Pahang, Chini is a lake that was formed from the natural damming of a river valley. It is Malaysia's second largest natural lake and is made up of a series of 12 lakes. With its well-known myths, the lake has attracted many visitors from various destinations. Legend has it that a mythical dragon lives in the lake and is the guardian of a lost city of gold, which was once situated at the lake. The Jakun people - an Orang Asli (aboriginal) tribe of Malay origin - who live around the lake also believe that the serpent Naga Seri Gumum (Loch Ness Monster) is the spirit and guardian of the lake. Nevertheless, these legends have enticed numerous archeologists to conduct scientific expeditions in Chini.

Lying majestically among 12,000 acres of lush tropical wilderness, the lake provides such beauty that it is possible to walk for miles without feeling bored. The size of the lake itself is subjective to regular periods of expansion and contractions. It is at its largest size during the monsoon months, which falls from October to January.



Virtually undisturbed for centuries, Tasik Chini itself is a habitat for over 144 species of fishes. The months of November to January is the best time for anglers to try their luck as the monsoon season would have increased the size and depth of the lake.

Earnest bird watchers will be happy to know that over 200 species of birds were recorded. Chini is a premier bird watching destination in Peninsula Malaysia. There are three bird watching trails, which go through different habitats. During the months of October to March, migratory birds come to Chini from the northern parts of Asia to escape the winter.

Chini is also a treasure trove for avid photographers. Imagine this picturesque lake with the majestic Gunung Chini in the backdrop, especially in the early mornings and late evenings. Also, during the months of July to January, the surface of the lake blossoms into a garden of pink and white lotuses, which contrasts brightly against the green lily pads. It is a truly breathtaking sight! River safaris are another way to enjoy the beauty of the lake.

For the more adventurous, Tasik Chini has a number of challenging routes through the jungle and swamps for off-road driving. The routes are only accessible by four-wheel-drives and provide enough excitement and adventure to please even the most demanding thrill-seeker. Another kind of activity is jungle trekking, which is exciting yet educational. One will be able to see an amazing array of flora and fauna here in Chini. It is best to secure a guide in order to fully utilize and appreciate the natural surroundings.

There are a number of wooden chalets and restaurants available, as well as camping spots for those who wish to rough it. Tasik Chini is accessible by road from most parts of Peninsula Malaysia and even Singapore. Daily bus services are also available from Kuantan.

Catch Chini

CATCH CHINI, a children’s dance performance by Kuala Lumpur Culture, Arts and Heritage Department at Lambang Sari, Istana Budaya, Kuala Lumpur on Aug 11-14. The hour and half production is a story written by Zulkifli Mohamad based on folk tale. Wira, a brave child from Kampung Chini who sets out on an adventure. Along the way, he meets the legendary dragon of Tasik Chini and other colourful characters, including dragonfly, butterflies, monkeys, fishes and wild dogs. Directed by Hamzah Mohammad Tahir with performers from Arts of Dance and Theatre (ADAT). Tickets: RM35, RM25 and RM15, are available from Ticket Axcess. Call 03-7711-5000.

‘Improve conditions of Lake Chini’

New Straits Times » Local

‘Improve conditions of Lake Chini’


KUANTAN, PAHANG, Sun.
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------

More than 400 Orang Asli who live around Lake Chini near Pekan want the Government to take immediate action to improve the quality of water in the lake which they say has deteriorated in recent years.
They claim that their livelihood has been adversely affected as the number of fish in the lake has dwindled due to pollution.

Kampung Gumum Orang Asli Welfare Action Commitee secretary Nubi Sia said logging activities near the lake and its river system had aggravated the situation.

"We have learnt that more logging areas will be opened up near the lake and that can further jeopardise our source of water and income," she said at a Press conference here today.

Present were Friends of the Earth (SAM) honorary secretary M.S. Anuar Mahmod and Felda Chini Smallholders Association honorary secretary Mohd Saleh Ishak.

Nubi said most of the Orang Asli in her village depended on the lake for their livelihood.

Kampung Gumum village batin (head) Awang Alok claimed that pollution at the lake started when the Government built a dam to maintain the water level.

He said the dam, constructed in 2000, stopped the flow of water from the lake to Sungai Pahang and vice versa.

"The fish from Sungai Pahang can no longer enter the lake while the water in the lake has slowly turned black and is almost stagnant," he said.

The lake, he added, was also infested by a water weed known as ekor kucing (Cobomba sp), and "fish cannot survive in the lake due to the weed and pollution".

Anuar said SAM would help the Orang Asli community to bring their problem to the attention of authorities at the state and federal levels.

Misteri Chini

Misteri Tasik Chini jadi bahan pementasan lagi
Oleh Raja Nurfatimah Mawar Mohamed



ZULKIFLI MOHAMAD, penulis cerita drama tari Chini.

BILAKAH kali terakhir anda menonton sebuah pementasan drama tari kanak-kanak yang menarik?

Jika sudah lama tidak berbuat demikian, inilah masanya untuk anda meluangkan masa menonton satu pertunjukan yang hebat, membabitkan 49 kanak-kanak tempatan yang berbakat. Diberi judul Chini, produksi terbitan Mofira Productions itu diarahkan penggiat teater terkenal Hamzah Tahir dan ia diangkat daripada karya kreatif Zulkifli Mohamad.

Menonjolkan skor muzik ciptaan Hafiz Askiak, drama tari itu akan dipentaskan di dewan Lambang Sari, Istana Budaya (IB) mulai 11 hingga 14 Ogos ini. Zulkifli ketika ditemui Bintang Popular berkata, Chini adalah kesinambungan pementasan Tanah Serendah Sekebun Bunga yang dipentaskan di Dewan Bahasa & Pustaka (DBP), tahun lalu.

“Bezanya, kalau kisah dulu dipersembahkan pelakon dewasa termasuk saya sendiri dan Mek Nab, kali ini Chini akan dilakonkan sekumpulan kanak-kanak berusia lapan hingga 15 tahun. Mereka adalah pelajar daripada Tunas Budaya dan Pak Ngah Productions yang cukup berbakat,” katanya.

Zulkifli yang juga pensyarah seni serta koreografer handalan berkata, Chini antara lain mengisahkan kisah pengembaraan kanakkanak zaman moden yang kembali ke zaman silam, seperti mana yang terlihat dalam kisah terkenal Harry Porter.

“Ia bermula dengan kisah seorang kanak-kanak, Wira dari Kampung Chini yang tidak semena-mena termasuk ke dalam dunia yang asing baginya. Ia terjadi ketika dia berbasikal di tepi belukar dan terpesona melihat keunikan rama-rama dan pepatung atau sesibu.

“Seterusnya, Wira dikejar pula oleh anjing putih tetapi muncul sekumpulan monyet (hanuman) yang berjaya menyelamatkannya.

Selepas lari ke arah tasik, Wira bertemu pula ikan merah dan akhirnya terserempak dengan `kepala naga'. Di situlah menjelmanya seorang puteri yang cantik dan ia begitu menghairankan Wira,” kata Zulkifli.

Beliau berkata, penceritaan dalam Chini juga dibuat berdasarkan kajian saintifik dan faktor geografi di sekitar tasik legenda itu.

“Di Tasik Chini memang ada kirakira 200 spesies pepatung dan ikan merah yang bergigi tajam. Bagi saya Chini menyelitkan kesedaranterhadap alam sekitar dan juga kisah mitos rakyat yang diwarisi sejak zaman berzaman.

“Sebenarnya kepala naga yang dijumpai Wira adalah kepala perahu yang unik,” katanya yang enggan bercerita lebih lanjut supaya khalayak seni akan datang sendiri menontonnya.

Zulkifli berkata, persembahan drama tari tanpa itu memang disasarkan untuk seisi keluarga selain murid-murid dan pelajar. Dalam berhibur, ia juga menyelitkan nasihat kepada penonton dan mampu menaikkan jati diri kanak-kanak.

Selain menulis skrip, Zulkifli juga menjadi penasihat kostum kepada pementasan menarik itu. Katanya, penggunaan pelbagai jenis fabrik daripada songket dan organza ditonjolkan bagi memberikan kesan visual yang memikat kepada penonton.

Bagi pencinta seni persembahan, Zulkifli bukanlah asing erana banyak membuat persembahan erbentuk tarian di dalam ahupun luar negara. Selain itu, eliau juga pernah menjadi pensyarah i beberapa kolej serta niversiti malah pernah menjadi enaga pengajar sambilan di University of Chulalongkorn, Bangkok.

Minat Zulkifli terhadap dunia fabrik tradisi begitu menyerlah kerana dia mempunyai koleksi kain antik yang dihimpun daripada seluruh nusantara.

Jerebu Kita Angkara Kita

Ada accident di jalan raya, mungkin kerana jerebu tebal, mungkin kerana memang mabok, mungkin memang tengah hai, ada yang mati bergelimpangan. Al Qaeda juga menyerang lagi, malam mengaku menyerang AS dan UK, Thaksin juga mengganas di Selatan Thai, Ada banyak orang yang mati dan hilang...............

Malaysian TV

I had a diffcult time last nite when I had to be with Ahli Fiqir at RTM 1, Live, Zoom In at 9pm (doing little sketch for their song Ambilla Ambillah, with Nani, Wan & Mac from Uitm and little Mira of Tunas Budaya, oh! catch Mira and Tunas Budaya at Istana Budaya 11-14 August 2005, "Chini") and wanting to watch our docu on artistic and scientific expedition to Pulau Tiga Sabah showing over Majalah 3 TV3 at the same time. What about AF3? Would have love to watch that, at least the final, but too bad, I cant do all and cant tape all the programmes. Did you watch any?

ICAS Shanghai

Hello Friends, have you been to Shanghai? It's going to be mu first time and looking forward to China, Shanghai City and the conference. I am also interested to discover about various cultural landscapes there including the art galleries, art movie house, performance spaces, arts schools, chinese operas as well clubbing and drinking joints. Anyone?

Seeking Langkasuka

Evanescent Kingdoms, Everlasting Spirit
Seeking Langkasuka
Written by: Zulkifli Mohamad
Edited by: Alex Kerr

As we crossed the Kelantan, Malaysia border to Pattani, Thailand, and boarded a taxi, telling the driver that we wanted to go to history department of Prince of Songkhla University, the young Malay taxi driver asked us, "Are you looking for Langkasuka?" The answer was, Yes, we were.

Langkasuka was the ancient fabled kingdom of the Isthmus. Existing long before the Melakan Sultanate, and extending its influence even into modern times, it has been a lodestone for Malay historians and artists. "Looking for Langkasuka" is a journey of discovery, an attempt to dig through the many layers of influence from China, India, Cham, Siam, Sumatera, Jawa, and the Middle East, to discover the enduring essence of Peninsular Malay culture.

The history of the Malay-Indo world is very complex, one of its distinctive attributes being a kaleidoscopic turnover of political alignments, disagreements and separation movements. South East Asia in general has changed tremendously in the past hundred years and more so before that. Various powers mapped and remapped the states of the Golden Peninsula many times even before the arrival of the western colonials.

Modern Malaysia is the result of such a process, with rearrangement of pieces of the puzzle board even in very recent times. Malaya referring to the Malay Peninsula was divided by the British into Federated Malay States (Johor, Selangor, Pulau Pinang, Melaka, Perak, Pahang) and Non-Federated Malay States (Kelantan, Trengganu, Kedah and Perlis) in 1909. By 1957, when Malaya got her independence, Singapore was part of it. Sabah and Sarawak states on the west coast of Borneo joined Malaysia as East Malaysia in 1963 when the Federation of Malaysia was proclaimed. Two years later Singapore separated from Malaysia.


The result is that the country of Malaysia today consists broadly of three cultural spheres: Borneo (Sabah and Sarawak), the Southern Peninsula (formerly the Federated States), and the Isthmus (formerly the Non-Federated States). The cultural differences between these regions are still quite strong, as may be seen by the fact that in 1999 Malaysian General Election, Barisan Nasional, the ruling party led by Dr. Mahathir Mohamad lost power in two northern states, Kelantan and Trengganu. The people of these two states are known as staunchly traditional Malays and Muslims. They have a different socio-cultural history and behaviour as the history of these states could be traced back to the ancient kingdom of the Isthmus, known as Langkasuka, 2000 years ago.

North versus South
Malay scholars have tended to date the beginning of Peninsular Malay civilisation from the birth of the Melaka Sultanate on the west coast in 1402. They justify this on the premise that as far as existing materials permit, Peninsular Malay Kingdoms only take off from the period of Melaka Sultanate. There were three important historical documents on Melaka: Sejarah Melayu (Malay Annals), Undang-undang Melaka (Melaka Digest) and Undang-undang Laut (Maritime Laws), and these three provide much needed information on the nature of the Melaka polity and society. However this information applies largely to the Malays of the south and west coast of the Peninsula — it leaves open the question of what was going on in the north and east. The "History Began with Melaka" formulation is flawed, for it leaves out the story of civilisation up north along the Isthmus.


We get some indication of the situation in the north from the fact that the Melaka sultanate in its less than one hundred years in power tried but failed to conquer Kelantan in the mid-1400's. Melaka could not do so as Kelantan received military help from the Pattani Kingdom, known for its sophistication in war strategy. Hang Tuah, the famous Melakan warrior, who served in the court of three sultans, visited Pattani, probably after the first war between Melaka and Kelantan. It is not sure when he visited Pattani — either on his way to China or on the way back. In one account, Hang Tuah was supposed to have attacked Pattani but found out that the state of war art of Pattani was far greater than Melaka. Hang Tuah saw hundreds of canons surrounding the fort of the palace.


From Hang Tuah's description, it is clear that on the Isthmus, powerful and well-established kingdoms such as Kelantan and Pattani preceded the founding of the Melakan Sultanate. Melaka did manage to defeat Kelantan on its second attempt and ended with a marriage of the Kelantan Princess, Onang Kuning, to Mahmud Shah, the last Sultan of Melaka. Their prince, Muzaffar Shah became the first sultan of Perak in 1531. Mahmud Shah, escaped to Johor when the Portuguese conquered Melaka in 1511 and established a new sultanate in Johor. He then fled to Riau-Lingga island, and finally went into hiding and died in Kampar, Sumatera. The war, ending in marital alliance, is typical of the political give-and-take between north and south. Such relations go back a long way and are underscored by recent archaeological evidence of trans-peninsular routeways of Melaka-Kelantan and Melaka-Perak-Pattani. These routes have been traced though the discoveries of various proto-historic settlements.


One noteworthy aspect of the wars between Kelantan and Melaka is the fact that in the Malay world of those days there was a blurred line between conquest and alliance. We can see this in the fact that the "defeated" Kelantan dynasty, through Princess Onang Kuning, ended up establishing marital ties with the sultanates of Melaka, Johor, and Perak. Another example would be the Sumateran kingdom of Sri Wijaya, centered at Palembang. In 685, the Chinese pilgrim Yiqing reported that Kedah had "become Sri Wijaya", which suggests that Sri Wijaya conquered Kedah. At the same time, other Chinese accounts referred to Sri Wijaya as a "double kingdom" with a capital in the north (identified as Kedah, or more likely, Kelantan) and a capital in the south (Palembang). It is not clear who was ruling who. This blurred line between conquest and alliance is important to keep in mind when reviewing the rise and fall of kingdoms and dynasties on the Isthmus, as described below, because it suggests that external political changes, such as apparent changes in rulers, may not have influenced local culture so much as we might imagine. Dynasties came and went; local polities survived.


The Beginnings


Critical to the history of the Isthmus is sheer geography. This narrow bridge of land was the nexus between China and India, between Siam and the Malay-Indo world, and it became as a result the natural landing place for Indian, Islamic, and Chinese traders, as well as the ever-fluid travels of the Malays themselves. What we might call the "Isthmian Malay region" stretched roughly from the area of Chaiya in present-day Thailand down to Kedah and Trengganu in Malaysia. This stretch of land, blessed with ports opening on oceans east and west, was the doorway to the natural riches of the "Golden Kersonese", and for this reason it became a jewel fought for and constantly attacked by Siam, Jawa, Sumatera, and Melaka. Given its strategic position, it is not surprising that the first accounts of ancient empires on the peninsula are centered on the Isthmus region.


As for what existed before the Melakan Sultanate, local Malay traditions and recent archaeological findings point to the existence of ancient pre-Melaka states such as Gangga Negara, in the Bruas-Dinding area prior to the foundation of the sultanates of Perak Sultanate, Trengganu and Kedah. Chinese r ecords of the Sui Dynasty onwards also speak of the existence of Kelantan and Pahang kingdoms in the pre- Melaka period. Not all the evidence is conclusive; in many instances there are far fetched speculations about the possible location of particular places, the names of which are available only in renditions of foreign languages such as Chinese and Arabic.


However, there is no doubt that a series of distinct kingdoms ruled the Isthmus from at least the first century, and by the 3rd century Chinese records give the names of about a dozen small states. From the 3rd until the 6th century, the Isthmus fell under the sway of Funan, an empire extending along the lower Mekong River in what is now Vietnam. Funan was the word the Chinese used to refer to the proto-Khmer Kingdom unified in the third century. This Hinduized empire imposed authority on the whole of the Isthmian section of the Malay Peninsula and the overland trade route, lasting for three hundred years.


The Isthmian Malay states regained their independence in the middle of 6th century after the Khmer Prince of Kambuja conquered Funan. From this time onwards important Malay states begin to appear in Chinese annals. Of the states mentioned, Tambralinga, another name for Ligor (present day Nakhorn Sri Thammarat), was situated near the northern limit of the Malay world. It is around this time that the Kingdom of Langkasuka first appears. Langkasuka (which the Chinese called Lang Ya Shu) was the largest and most prosperous of these early kingdoms, and may have covered the full width of Isthmus, lying to the south of Ligor and to the north of the present Malay Peninsula.


Courts of Malay Isthmian rulers in the early 7th century showed a high standard of elegance and luxury. Accounts describe Buddhism as the religion of the country, while Brahmans held positions at court. Throughout the first millennium of the Christian era, the Malay Kingdoms of Langkasuka and Ligor continued to appear in Chinese records, which described the Malay city states as prosperous reaching a high level of economic and cultural development.


Sri Wijaya and the Isthmus


Through conquest — and also subtly through alliance and defeat — the Isthmian states managed to survive in various guises and flourish from the 6th until the 14th centuries. From the beginning their history was intricately interwoven with more powerful empires to the north and south. To the north they alternately warred against and allied with the Khmer, and later the Sukhotai and Ayudthaya empires of Siam; to the south with the Sri Wijaya, and later the Sailendra and Majapahit empires in Sumatera and Jawa; to the west with the Chola empire in India.


The interplay with Indonesia is the most important of all influences, especially in the early period before the rise of Siam. Sri Wijaya, based in its early years at Palembang in Sumatera, was the mother empire of the Indonesian archipelago, the one from which all the others in Sumatera, Java, and Bali later sprang. It continued in different guises and locations from the late 7th century until the 14th century, and at various times exerted hegemony over the Malay peninsula.


By the 8th century a rival kingdom was thriving in central Jawa known as the Sailendras; they too controlled the Isthmus for a brief period. The Sailendras were related to the old kings of north-central Jawa as well as to the Sri Wijaya ruling house in Sumatera. Prince Patapan fled from Jawa to Sri Wijaya in 832 to ascend the throne, with the result that the Sailendra line was extinguished in Jawa but continued in Sri Wijaya on Sumatera. The history of Sri Wijaya is inextricably linked with the ruling houses of the Malay peninsula. For example, in the 15th century, Parameshwara, a Sri Wijayan prince fled from Sumatera to Singapura Temasek before he became the sultan of Melaka.


After Prince Patapan moved to Sumatera in 832, power in Jawa shifted from the centre to the east of the island. The Sailendras yielded to a series of dynasties in east Jawa who thrived from the 9th until the 15th century, most important of which was the Majapahit, dated usually from 1292 until about 1500. During the heyday of the Majapahit in the 14th and 15th centuries, the Malay Isthmian states appear at times to have been a part of the Majapahit empire. The subtle shifts of power along the Isthmus are very complicated and not many scholars have looked into this thoroughly. Meanwhile there were powerful influences from Chinese, and in later centuries, Islamic traders.


In about 1025, Rajendra Chola of South India attacked and subjugated Kedah, with the result that the Kedah region flourished with a Hinduized civilisation which has left the largest pre-Islamic monuments on the peninsula. Meanwhile, it was recorded in Pali chronicles of the 15th century that Sujitaraja, the Buddhist Malay Raja of Ligor had married a Khmer princess in the second half of the 10th century. The close association between 10th and 11th century Khmers and Isthmian Malays at the highest level provides many reasons that the ancient culture of the two peoples has much in common. The Malay rulers of Ligor acquired strength and ambition from their Khmer association.


So important is Sri Wijaya to the history of the Isthmus that there have been several attempts by scholars to place its capital there. Thai academia has a long tradition of adopting neighbouring dynasties as their own, viz. the identification of the original Thai nation with the Dali Empire of Yunnan. In similar fashion, Thais have claimed Chaiya or Cahaya (which in Malay means light), as the site where Si Wichai (Sri Wijaya) was. On the other hand, J.L. Meons (1937) believed that early Sri Wijaya was located in Kelantan and K.A. Nilakanta Sastri (1949) supported the idea. The Kelantan theory may not be far-fetched, since Chinese Sui Dynasty annals of the 7th century describe an advanced kingdom called Chi Tu ("Red Earth") as being in Kelantan. The ancient name for Kelantan was "Raktamrittika", meaning "Red Earth" — this was later changed to "Sri Wijaya Mala". The capital of Sri Wijaya Mala was called "Valai", and it was situated along the upper Kelantan river of Pergau, known for its rich gold mines.


The controversy over the true location of Sri Wijaya arises because of the fact that after the death of Maharaja Sri Jayanaga around 692, during the mission to capture Jawa Island, Sri Wijaya seems to have been divided into two states. The eldest son Maharaja Dipang ruled over Amdan Negara, that is, the Malay Isthmus, probably Kelantan/Kedah. The second son, Maharaja Dhiraja, ruled the islands (Sumatera and other islands of the Indonesian archipelago), based at Palembang. After the division into east and west, the name of Sri Wijaya remained in Sumatera, but on the Malay peninsula, a poetic title emerged for the Kelantan/Kedah area, namely, Tanah Serendah Sekebun Bunga (Valley of Flower Garden Land). This title is still found in traditional performing arts such as Mak Yong dance, Wayang Kulit puppet theatre, etc. By 730 the capital of Sri Wijaya in Sumatera moved from Palembang, known as Langkapura, to Kota Mutajap near the river mouth of Jambi in Sumatera.


It is reasonable to speculate that some elements of the Sri Wijayan culture originated in Sumatera, but later spread to other parts of South East Asia from Kelantan/Kedah. Yawakoti meaning Jawa Point, is situated at Bukit Panau hill along the upper Kelantan river near Pergau; some believe this place to be from which Jawanese politics and culture spread out. Jawa Duipa, an ancient name for Kelantan means Tanah Jawa ("land owned by the Jawanese"), or Kawasan Jawa ("Jawanese area").


Al Tabari states that the word Jawa or Jva was used more widely in ancient times. Jawa in those days meant "Jawanese culture" (i.e. Malay culture), including its centres on the Isthmus, as compared to now when Jawa only refers to Jawa Island in Indonesia. According to one tradition, the Jawanese moved down from Kemboja and spread out to the archipelago.


Looking for Langkasuka


Langkasuka is the name used, from very early times, for the kingdoms of the Isthmus. However, there are many conflicting theories concerning exactly where the kingdom of Langkasuka was situated. Hikayat Merong Maha Wangsa and The History of Kedah or Kedah Annals described Langkasuka as covering the Isthmus from sea to sea, from the port of Pattani to Kedah, with Gunung Jerai as the centre of the kingdom.


Notable among Chinese records is the Chi Tu Guo Ji, "Record of the Kingdom of Red Earth", written by the Sui Dynasty envoys after a visit to the peninsula in 607-610. This is the most important documentary evidence of an inland kingdom known as Chi Tu "Red Earth". There are a number of good arguments giving credence to the theory that the kingdom was situated in Kelantan. Upriver of the Kelantan area, Gua Cha is known for its early settlement some 8000 years ago. The Dabong-Pergau rivers are known for their clay deposits and witnessed the making of old black pottery; Tanah Merah (Red Earth) is the name of a place upriver of Kelantan. The capital of the kingdom was described in the Chinese annals as having


triple gates more than a hundred paces apart painted with images of bodhisattvas and hung with flowers and bells ... to the rear of the king's couch there is a wooden shrine inlaid with gold, silver and five perfumed woods, and behind the shrine is suspended a golden light ... several hundred brahmans sit in rows facing each other on the eastern and western sides.


Chinese records written by Chang Chun during the reign of the 7th century Sui Emperor Yang Di, spoke of a kingdom called Lang Ya Shu in Chinese, identifiable as Langkasuka in Malay. Chang Chun described Langkasuka as one of the earliest individual states in South East Asia, a Malay Kingdom. Slightly earlier, the History of the Liang Dynasty 502-566 seems to support a Malay tradition that Langkasuka was founded at the end of the first century in the neighbourhood of what was later called Pattani. Lang Ya Shu proved to be of great economic importance, partly due to the existence of an overland trade route or portage across the Isthmus.


But which of these states is Langkasuka: Kedah, Kelantan, Pattani, or Ligor? Many scholars have come up with various theories, based on archaeological evidence, linguistic clues, or traditions from dance and folklore. Archaeologists point out that the Sungai Pattani River flowed from Kedah to Pattani with another route to Sungai Merbok, Kedah. They are trying to prove that the Bujang valley in Kedah, was the centre of Langkasuka, and the important ruins of Hinduized temples found there make it a strong candidate. Others have sought the origins of Langkasuka in its similarity with the names of Langkapuri, Langkapura, Langkawi and Alangkah Suka, the land of the legendary 17th century Princess Saadong. Paul Wheatley in Golden Kersonese insisted that Langkasuka was in Pattani. While we cannot be sure that Pattani was the capital of Langkasuka, Wheatley was not far wrong in pointing out that Pattani was a famous port of Langkasuka and later became a city-state in its own right before being subsumed as a province of the Thai Kingdom.


Stewart Wavell went seeking for Langkasuka in his romantic voyage depicted in The Naga King's Daughter, a cultural travel journal from Pahang in Malaysia to Chaiya in Thailand in 1963. Wavell described his excitement on meeting a girl named "Golden Naga" in Pattani. Golden Naga was a Manora dancer who described Manora as :


..the oldest of all magic from the land of Lakawn Suka. We merely pay our respect to the Princess Saadong.


Wavell drew together Lakawn Suka, the Pattani Malays' fairyland equivalent of Langkasuka, and Princess Saadong from the folk stories of Kedah. Golden Naga described Lakawn Suka as being near the hill of Bukit Sangkalalili in Pattani and placed the palace of Princess Saadong on the hill. Wavell discovered an old ruin at Yarang (Binjal Lima in Malay). His findings at this old Pattani monastery included:


Buddhas with cylindrical head-dresses of the Sri Wijaya style, carved with the naturalistic impulse of those Sailendras artists who worked such wonders at Borobudur in Central Jawa ... more interesting were the Dvaravati Buddhas of pre-Thai period, possibly prior to the 7th century when Langkasuka would have passed out of the orbit of Funan into the temporary vassalage of the Mons at Thaton before Sailendras spread their power over the former territories of Funan...


Wavell's comment on Funan is significant, because it lends credence to speculation that some of the earliest forms of Malay culture are to be found in Funan. Funan was Southeast Asia's earliest Indianized state, and it is known that Funan controlled the Isthmus from the 3rd to the 6th centuries. From there such influences could easily have spread south to Sumatera and Jawa.


Wavell wondered whether Yarang might even have been the capital of Langkasuka. However, H.G. Quaritch Wales and the Fine Arts Department of Thailand later asserted that the site was the northern capital of Sri Wijaya. Though Wavell knew that he could not make a clear archaeological connection between the Yarang ruins and Langkasuka, he insisted on linking Pattani with the tales of Langkasuka as they appear in folklore: the Story of King Merong Maha Wangsa, the Bukit Sankalalili hill, and the fabled Princess Saadong as revealed in Pattani Manora dance. H.S.H. Princess Piya Rangsit of Thailand believed in a variation of Wavell's theory, placing Langkasuka further north at Ligor/Tambralinga (Nakhorn Sri Thammarat) but she did not manage to fully research her discovery, as she was killed in a helicopter accident during a coup in the 1970's. Today, the Pattani people still believe that the old site of Yarang in Pattani is the site of the Langkasuka Kingdom, the same story they told Wavell nearly forty years ago.


The Chermin Empire and Majapahit II


While the history of the earlier periods is obscure, the later 14th and 15th centuries were a high point of the Langkasuka civilisation. Raja Sang Tawal the son of Raja Sakranta of the Melayur Empire, based at Ligor, moved to Kelantan after he was defeated by Siam in 1295 and lost Singgora (the old name for Songkhla). Kelantan then became the base for unified Langkasuka. In 1339, Raja Bharubhasa (Sultan Mahmud Syah) replaced his father Raja Sang Tawal as king of Langkasuka, and succeeded in grouping the Isthmus, Champa in Vietnam, and Samudra-Pasai in Sumatera into a new empire known as the Chermin Empire.


The period of the so-called Chermin Empire, reaching from Sumatera to Vietnam, was the zenith of Langkasuka power. Raja Bharubhasa captured Kedah from the mad king Raja Bersiong (Maha Prita Daria) and incorporated Gangga Nagara (the old kingdom of Perak) as part of the Chermin Empire. The Raja's sister, Dewi Durga ruled Lamuri, later known as Aceh. In 1345, the Siamese mounted a major attack on the Isthmus, with the result that Raja Bharubhasa was forced to offer gold and silver trees as tribute to the Kingdom of Sukhotai. The offering of tribute to Siam was a symbolic turning point, the "little weft within the lute" that centuries later was to end with Siam permanently capturing the northern portion of the Isthmus. Raja Bharubhasa moved upriver to another area in Kelantan called Bukit Panau, and named his new capital Jeddah, meaning "Jewel". The jewel capital of Raja Bharubhasa was situated very near the very site of the "Red Earth" kingdom of the 7th century — the original Langkasuka.


From this time onwards a tug-of-war with Siam ensued. In 1357 Gajah Mada of the Majapahit empire in Jawa defeated Siam and joined in a coalition with the peninsular states to successfully attack Ayudthaya. Gajah Mada declared Jeddah the capital of West Majapahit, with Jawa island being known as East Majapahit. History repeated itself, following the same pattern of Sri Wijaya when it split in the 7th century, and also located one capital at Kelantan/Kedah and another in Sumatera.


In 1395 Siam re-attacked the southern peninsula and captured Temasek in 1401. The power of Siam was on the rise. Sultan Iskandar Shah (Kemas Jiwa) was called from Jawa to come back and rule Kelantan, though he was married to the Majapahit Queen in 1427. Basing himself in Kelantan, Iskandar Shah proclaimed his kingdom as Majapahit II (1432-1502) with the capital called Kota Mahligai (Fort of Heaven). In 1467, Siam of Ayudthaya conquered Majapahit II, and Sultan Iskandar Shah fled to Champa and died there. His nephew Pateh Aria Gajah, who had served as Iskandar's prime minister, moved to Pattani. Later, Iskandar's son known as Mansur Shah briefly revived the Majapahit II kingdom in Kelantan. Majapahit II under Mansur survived a short time until defeated by Melaka in 1499.


As we can see from the fact that Iskandar Shah named his Kelantan kingdom "Majapahit II", the Majapahit empire of Jawa was inextricably connected to the history of the states of the Isthmus. Majapahit was known as the greatest empire of all states in insular Southeast Asia from 1300 onwards, claiming political control over most of the archipelago, but declining in the 15th century. Essentially, the relationship that earlier had existed between Sri Wijaya and the Isthmus evolved into one between Majapahit and the Isthmus.


Pattani


The final fall of Majapahit II in 1502 is sometimes taken by historians as the end of Langkasuka. However this defeat no more marked the end of Langkasuka than all the other victories and defeats, rises and falls of dynasty recorded earlier. The royal courts and culture of the region continued to thrive after 1500 — in fact the culture of the Isthmus reached its highest flower in the years that were to come. However, two important changes occurred at this time in the history of Langkasuka: First, with conversion to Islam by the Sultan of Pattani in 1500, the culture became Islamic. Second, the locus of Langkasuka shifted away from Kelantan, pulled higher up the Isthmus in a response to the growing power of Siam. From 1500 until 1900 power on the Isthmus was located in Pattani and Ligor (Nakhorn Sri Thammarat). This was the era of maritime power, and Pattani had an advantage over other states because of its important natural harbour.


Pasir Putih (meaning "white sand") is another name for Gresik, an earlier kingdom in Pattani history. It is the name of an old place in East Jawa, possibly during the Majapahit Kingdom. Gresik later became Pattani, and its importance grew after the beginning of the 14th century when Siam began to expand downwards and Ligor became a Siamese dependency. Pattani appeared in the records of the Ming Admiral Cheng Ho, who led a Chinese fleet to Melaka in the early 1400's. With the decline of the Majapahit and the Chermin empires after the 15th century, Pattani eventually gained hegemony over the Isthmus, and it maintained its independence long after Siam absorbed other northern Isthmian Malay states.


The glory of the Pattani Kingdom dates from the rule of Sultan Ismail Shah (1500-1530), who founded the Malay Muslim kingdom known as Pattani Darul Salam after he converted to Islam. It was believed that Islam in Pattani came way before Melaka (1412) and Trengganu (1303/1368), as Pattani was a seaport through which traders came and went, the source of Islamic teaching and cultural forms.


Pattani as the name of a city state may have been changed after the ruler converted to Islam. There is some dispute about the origins of the name, one theory being that the name derives from Pantai Ini in standard Malay language. At the same time, the people of Pattani, Kelantan and Besut (the northern part Trengganu) speak a very distinctive dialect in which the sounds Patta Ni mean "This Shore". Today, the Thais denote the language of the people in the south of Thailand is "Jawi", where Malaysians use Jawi to refer to the written script of the Malay language adapted from Arabic script. This script is thought to have originated in Pattani.


Pattani's Golden Era came after the fall of Melaka to the Portuguese in 1511. Four Queens ruled Pattani during this time: Queen Green (1584-1616), Queen Blue (1616-1624), Queen Purple (1624-35) and Queen Yellow (1635-86). Around 1688-90, the rule of Pattani shifted to the Kelantan royal line, and this scenario was reversed around 1730 when the Pattani royal line came to rule Kelantan. The last sultan of Pattani, Sultan Abdul Kadir Kamaruddin's (1899-1902) son Tengku Seri Akar was married to the daughter of Sultan Muhamad IV of Kelantan. Through the 16th century to the 19th century we can trace many Pattani royal sons and daughters married into the ruling families of Kelantan, Perlis, Trengganu, Pahang, Johor, Melaka and Kedah.


After the four Queens, the power of Pattani gradually declined. Where the rulers of Pattani had once commanded the whole Isthmus, their domains shrank to cover only the four provinces of Pattani, Narathiwat, Yala, and Sathun. Eventually they controlled only the area covered by the modern Thai province of Pattani, only to be swallowed up by Siam in the early 20th century. As Pattani declined, the Sultan of Ligor (Nakhorn Sri Thammarat), although still under Siamese suzerainty, regained a measure of independence, and it is from this that confusion has arisen as to the true location of Langkasuka.


The Thais tend to favour theories that place the centre of Langkasuka farther up north along the Isthmus, at Ligor, rather than at Pattani. Local historians in Nakhorn Sri Thammarat (Ligor/Tambralinga) believe that there were 12 states under the rule (or loosely federated with) the King of Nakhorn Sri Thammarat, before he was captured by the last King of Ayudthaya. This group of 12 states included Kelantan, Trengganu, Pahang and Kedah. At the end of the 18th century, King Taksin of Siam moved his capital to Thonburi after the Burmese sacked the city of Ayudthaya. As part of Taksin's military feats, he captured Ligor. King Taksin removed the King of Ligor and installed him as the Governor of Nakhorn Sri Thammarat.


Islam


Islamic scholars would like to think that Islam came to Pattani through Islamic mubaligh (messengers) during the Saljuk Caliphate (1055-1194) when the Saljuk's Wazir Nizam Al-Malik of Baghdad created a new Islamic teaching system, known as Fondok in Arabic, Pondok in Malay. Pattani is even now famous in the South East Asian region for its tradition of Pondok. The Pondok system centres around an apprentice community led by religious gurus who mainly train in Mekah. There were many famous Islamic scholars from Pattani. Although the first ruler of Pattani converted to Islam only in 1500, it is believed that Islam entered Pattani long before that through Persian and Indian merchants and messengers. Not only Pattani, but also Kelantan became an influential Islamic centre. Kelantan at one point came to be known as Serambi Mekah, "Verandah of Mecca" because of its function in spreading Islam to the rest of the Malay world.


Islamic culture later spread out among Malay scholars and nobles. Prophet Mohamad's famous sayings like "Do travel even to China to learn", "Trading is good in Islam" and Hijrah Lah "Do Move" [from one place to another for better life] adapted well to the traditional life-style of the Malays — travellers and adventurers who colonised all the thousands of islands of the Indonesian and Philippine archipelago and far into the vastness of the Pacific ocean. These Islamic ideas became important principles of Malay-Muslim life. With those concepts we can understand why there was freer movement in trading in the parts of Southeast Asia known in Malay as Nusantara or the Malay Archipelago.


What happened is that Islam took the kingdoms' borders away. The kingdoms ties became stronger through Islamic marriages, and the Muslim peoples of lands under completely different forms of government, such as Mindanao, Jawa, or the Malay Peninsula, discovered in their Islamic heritage bonds that transcended state boundaries. Because of that there was a constant flow and counter-flow of influences among the Malay-Muslim kingdoms such as Champa, Pattani, Kelantan, Trengganu, Pahang, Aceh, Jambi, Johor-Riau, Sambas, Brunei, Makasar, Pontianak, Banjarmasin, Kutai, Sulu, Mindanao and Palawan. This free flow of people and arts — one of the distinctive traits of the Malay world —was one of the reasons why Melaka became an important trading port in the Malay archipelago. Islam reinforced a pre-existing cultural unity for political protection and economic survival.


Muslim unity between the archipelagos and the peninsula seems to have been a combination of Islamic teaching with something ancient and inherent in the Malay character. Looking at the rise and fall of kingdoms, the complex interplay of empires whose reach extended from Jawa to Celebes to Vietnam, one cannot escape the sense that even before Islam, the peoples of the archipelago in general, and the Isthmus in particular, shared a common cultural bond that knitted states and royal houses into a flexible whole. The royal houses themselves were woven together in a seamless fabric — e.g. Kelantan's royal family ruling Pattani and then vice versa. The underlying unity within fluid historical change arose from deep-seated shared cultural roots.


The Malay Isthmus, centered during this time on Pattani, was the old heartland of this culture, and it was constantly a source of struggle between the Isthmian royal houses, Malay sultans on the peninsula and the Siamese kingdoms of Sukhotai, Ayudthaya, Lopburi and Rattanakosin. Pattani was not only famous for its port, but also for jungle products such as tropical woods, birds' nests, ivory, and minerals like tin, steel, silver and gold. During the Ayudthaya period Pattani was considered the second most important port on the peninsula after Melaka. According to old reports, Pattani had gold mines which attracted Chinese miners and Arab buyers. Intermarriages between local Malay, Thai, Chinese and Arabs created special features of the Pattani people.


In discussing what was Langkasuka, it almost impossible to define exactly where was this fabled kingdom that gave birth to so much Malay culture. Part of the problem is that Malay empires in general — not only Langkasuka, but Sri Wijaya and Majapahit also — were ever-shifting flexible realms where capitals moved and royal houses aligned and re-aligned. In the case of Langkasuka, the discussion is further complicated by the fact that there are really several Langkasukas. One Langkasuka, most narrowly defined, was the early 7th century kingdom of Lang Ya Shu described in Chinese annals. Another Langkasuka, the definition most commonly used, is a kingdom or series of kingdoms beginning with Lang Ya Shu and lasting until the fall of Majapahit II in 1502. Another Langkasuka, using the word in the broad sense favoured by artists and traditional folklore, refers to traditional Isthmian culture in general. In this larger Langkasuka, the Langkasuka of legend and art, a series of Malay kingdoms ruled the Isthmus more or less independently from the 1st century, surviving through the hegemony of Funan, Sri Wijaya, Chola, Majapahit, Siam, and the advent of Islam. This larger Langkasuka disappeared with the fall of Pattani in 1902. Only a century, well within a few generations of human memory, separates modern Malays from old Langkasuka.


The Isthmus Divided


For nearly two millennia, kings and empires had not succeeded in dividing the states of the Isthmus, but all this began to change at the beginning of the 20th century.


Since the time of Raja Bharubhasa in 1345, Isthmian states had paid tribute to Siam on and off. After King Taksin of Siam captured Nakhorn Sri Thammarat at the end of the 17th century, the paying of tribute, in the form of gold and silver flower trees became institutionalised for all the Malay states of the Isthmus right down to Kelantan, Trengganu, Kedah and Perlis. Meanwhile, the British consolidated their rule of the peninsula in 1824, and in recognition of the special tribute-paying status of the northern states, they were later designated the Non-Federated States of Malaya.


While these states paid symbolic tribute to Siam, they remained essentially independent kingdoms. Pattani was thus nominally under the reign of Siam, yet eluded her grasp, being ruled not from Bangkok but by a sultan of the Pattani royal line. Pattani and the Isthmian region had been a prize sought after by the Siamese since the Sukhotai period. Prince Damrong, the interior minister of King Chulalongkorn when he visited Pattani in the late 1800's, described the land as


A country with enough salt in Kuala Bekah, to feed the whole Malay Peninsula, enough rice in Jaringau to feed the people of the land and fresh water fish in Jambu not to mention the salt water fish, and various tropical fruits in Telubang.


The power politics of Western imperialism during the 19th century provided Siam with the opportunity to gain what it had sought for six hundred years. Siam removed the sultan of Pattani in 1902, and in 1909 the Malay states of Pattani, Yala, Narathiwat, Satun etc. were officially handed to Kingdom of Siam after the signing of the Bangkok Treaty between Siam and Great Britain.


The formal division of the Isthmus into a Thai side and a Malay side has had a drastic impact on the civilisation of the region. After the Bangkok Treaty, "Malay" as an ethnic group became a reference to the Malays in Malaya (later Malaysia), especially to foreign scholars. Malays in South Thailand became known as "Thai Muslim", as a result of the expansion of the Kingdom of Siam and the modern nation building of Thailand after 1934.


With independence from colonial Western powers in the 20th century, accompanied by the rise of distinct national identities in Indonesia and Malaysia, the Malays of Sumatera became known as Melayu-Deli. Divided into separately named ethnic groups, the strongest apparent bond between the Malay people of the archipelago became Islam, with the result that they came to be known not so much as "Malays" as the "Muslims of South East Asia". The discussion of Malay before Islam became more sensitive among the people and political elite.


Because ancient Langkasuka was a Hindu-Buddhist kingdom and the modern Malay people are devout Muslims, this suggested to the Thais that Langkasuka was in the Kingdom of Siam. So Thai authorities have come up with various theories to claim Langkasuka as based in southern Thailand. In the same way, problems concerning the true origin of the Thai race led Thai historians to identify themselves with the kingdom of Nan Chao in Dali, southern China.


The making of the modern Thai state beginning in the late 1800's and early 1900's during the reigns of King Mongkut and King Chulalongkorn was indeed a smart move. Thailand's unification of various kingdoms in the north, north east and south, including the Malay states below Singgora (Songkhla) enriched the nation's economic and cultural resources.


Langkasuka Lost


In modern times, Langkasuka has become a victimised cultural source for Malay civilisation. It is a non-politically correct subject to discover for a modern Islamic country like Malaysia, and Malay Studies departments in Malaysian Universities steer clear of it. South East Asian studies need only concern themselves with political and economic matters. A controversial topic is preferably avoided, especially with the establishment of ASEAN.


Though cultural history is very much needed in the development of fine arts studies in Malaysia, universities side-stepped the controversy and devoted all their energy and resources for developing something new, denying and ignoring the cultural past. Thus Kelantan, Kedah, Perlis and Trengganu states to a certain extent became alien states in their own nation. Their cultural and social behaviours are often accused of backwardness. Because of that the people and the governments of these states are constantly trying to separate themselves from their cultural past and drive people away from indigenous Malay culture towards the popular Arabian style of Islamic movement.


The discussion about Langkasuka with Pattani scholars and people would not be complete without mention of the last sultan of Pattani. After 1902, Sultan Abdul Kadir was first exiled to Phitsanulok in the north of Siam but later took refuge in Kelantan where his in-laws lived. There were a few attempts by the Pattani royal family and Islamic intellectuals to start a separatist movement in Pattani but all failed, as both parties had different agendas. With the rise of communist movements in the Isthmus in 1960s and the activities of PULO guerrillas in southern Thailand, Malaysia strove to avoid being drawn into a conflict with Thailand, and this had the effect of driving the Malay states in Malaysia even farther from Pattani. Among the old people of Pattani, we can see the sadness of people abandoned by their sultan, as they continue to live there and pray in the mosque that the sultan and sultan before built. Meanwhile, young people are divided as to whether they should be Malay, Thai Muslim or Thai. It is sad that this should occur at the very heart of old Langkasuka which once ruled the Isthmus as the most ancient Malay kingdom before Islam, Thailand or Malaysia.


We often look at "Malay" as in Malaysia, a country that obtained independence from Great Britain in 1957. If we look at art forms we tend to concentrate on Malay Islamic art forms, when the arts flourished most, probably during Melakan civilisation, after the sultan converted to Islam. Modern Malaysian education tends to reinforce the view that Malay art forms started from Melaka after Islam, ignoring the northern states that have so much more historical background. The development of Malay culture after independence recognised Jawanese, Bugis and Sumateran immigrant origins, overlooking Langkasuka origins because Langkasuka was a Hindu-Buddhist state and its old centre of Pattani is now in Thailand.


In short, the official version of modern Malaysian culture is that Malaysia is a land of convergence of many immigrants from the Indonesian archipelago looking for new hope. In this formulation, lost is the soul of being peninsular Malay, of possessing indigenous cultural roots going back to Langkasuka, Funan, and before. It is worse for Pattani, since the once famous kingdom has become part of Thailand, a Buddhist country that downplays Malay racial and cultural identity, in order to develop its own distinct national culture.


Langkasuka culture is controversial in modern Malaysia because it tends to be defined as Buddhist or Hindu. Yet the arts of Langkasuka continued to flourish for four hundred years during the Islamic era of the Pattani Kingdom. In short, Langkasuka should not be looked at as period, a city, a particular religion — but rather as a cultural sphere.


Langkasuka Found


One of the unspoken but influential reasons why modern Malay scholars have not paid much attention to Langkasuka and its legacy is that from their perspective, the Isthmus lies on the fringe. Pattani, Kelantan, Kedah, Perlis, and Trengganu are barbarous places lying far away from the cultural centres they are familiar with. These are: Sri Wijaya and Majapahit from the 6th to the 14th centuries, Melaka in the 15th century, Singapore and Penang under colonial rule, and Kuala Lumpur today. The northern states remain still very much "Non-federated" from the point of view of mainstream Malaysian culture. Making them seem even more remote is the fact that they speak dialects that are difficult for outsiders to fully understand.


The strong Thai influence in the culture of the northern states also makes them seem outlandish from the point of view of central Malaysia. On the other hand, the Thais easily dismiss their own heritage acquired from the Malay states they absorbed because, looked at from the vantage of Sukhotai, Ayudthaya, and Bangkok, the Isthmus lies far to the south. Its culture, being Islamic today, is alien to them. Since King Rama V (Chulalongkorn), the process of absorbing the southern states into Thailand has been successful, with the result that the remnants of Islamic culture remaining there seem crude and simple. For the Thais too, Langkasuka lies at the fringe.


The same could be said of Indonesian scholarship, standing in awe of the monumental remains in Jawa, and dazzled by the Hindu arts of Bali. The Isthmus way up north seems very distant from the royal capitals of the Sri Wijayan and Majapahit empires and the later Islamic kraton of Solo and Yogyakarta. Seen from Jawa island, the arts of the Malay Isthmus appear old-fashioned, rustic, and folk — watered-down versions of classic Jawanese arts. In any case, since 1947 with the creation of the modern nation of Indonesia, the Isthmus today stands politically remote as well, a no-man's-land divided between two different countries, Thailand and Malaysia.


Yet, like the spokes of a fan radiating from a single hinge, what appears remote at the edges of the fan, may be the focal point holding all the spokes together. In other words, the fringe may be the hinge. Especially in the case of the Malay peninsula, the argument could be made that Langkasuka culture, far from lying at the fringe, was the primal and determinant culture of the peninsula for most of the historic period. Even today, it is the arts of Langkasuka as they have survived in the northern states and southern Thailand that wield the strongest influence on traditional Malay arts.


It's important to look closely at traditional arts such as dance, shadow puppets, martial arts, and wood carving because of a problem peculiar to Malay peninsular culture: a lack of tangible monuments. The Indonesian archipelago has Borobudur ; Cambodia has Angkor Wat, Burma has Pagan, Thailand has Sukhotai and Ayudthaya, Vietnam has Cham. Compared to these great monuments of the past, the Malay peninsula can boast only a modest group of Hindu remains in Kedah, slim pickings for those seeking the heart of a great culture.


The old cities of Melaka and Penang are the exceptions that prove the rule, for they have everything to do with Chinese and Western colonial influence, and almost nothing to do with indigenous Malay culture — they are not the places to seek the ancient Malay spirit. This lack of impressive monuments is a secret frustration and embarrassment for Malay historians.


But from another point of view, perhaps it is something to be proud of. Thoreau wrote: "Many are concerned about the monuments of the West and the East, to know who built them. For my part, I should like to know who in those days did not build them, — who were above such trifling." In asking ourselves what was the essence of Malay traditional culture, both before and after the advent of Islam, it would seem that the energies of common people, artists, and the ruling elite did not pour into building enduring monuments. Rather they went into ephemeral arts such as ritual, dance, music, pantun poetry, or wood carving in a sensitive response to the numinous forest and ocean environment in which the Malays lived. The belief that nothing is permanent is expressed in the 2-verse pantun:


Sekali air bah, Sekali pantai berubah

Once flooded, The shored is changed.


It could be said that not building enduring monuments was a trait of the Malay-Indo world in general. Java's great temples are in that sense something of an anomaly, by no means typical or representative of Malay culture in the rest of the archipelago, the peninsula, or the Philippines. Malays, as a rule, did not seek immortality in stones, brick, plaster, or gold and silver pavilions towering to the sky. They were above such trifling.


The Arts of Langkasuka


The place therefore to seek Malay culture on the peninsula is not in physical remains but in the living arts, and it is here that the influence of the kingdoms of Langkasuka reveals itself in its true form. Below we will look briefly at the arts of Dance, Shadow Puppets, Silat (Martial Arts), and Keris and Wood Carving, as they remain today on the Malay peninsula.


Dance and Theatre


The development of traditional dance in Malaysia after independence is emblematic of what happened to the arts in general. Today, traditional dance forms divide sharply between Malay, Indian, and Chinese. In contrast, the older forms of dance as they evolved in royal courts are far more eclectic — no one felt the need to define and state, "This is Malay", "This is Chinese", and so forth. The eclecticism of palace dance was only natural given the mix of races and ebb and flow of different dynasties on the peninsula over the last two millennia. However, in an effort to give each group a distinctive identity within a multi-ethnic state, modern cultural authorities found the old eclectic forms too confusing. Each ethnic group should have a dance of its own.


In the case of Malay dance, this meant discarding the courtly forms that had been the melting pot of so many different traditions and concentrating on folk dance. Today when one goes to see traditional Malay dance it is typically Joget, Zapin, or Inang, Sumateran-style folk dances, or Dayak dances from Sabah and Sarawak.


Yet, although they are poorly known today, there were sophisticated forms of palace dance that developed in the courts of Langkasuka, and while all are now threatened or dying, it is still possible to see them and surmise the cultural universe from which they sprang.






Manora


Manora is a form of dance found in Kedah, Penang, Kelantan and provinces in South Thailand. It is similar to Mak Yong , the other classical dance theatre found in this region, but is distinguished by a high degree of Siamese influence. Mak Yong, in contrast, is more distinctively "Malay".


Manora (also called Nora Chatri or Nora in South Thailand) is a folk dance theatre form, believed to have originated from Ligor (Nakhorn Sri Thammarat). Some Thai researchers are convinced that Mak Yong originated from Nora. In Pattani, both art forms exist, Mak Yong in Malay communities and Nora in Thai communities. The same situation can be found in Tumpat district, a Thai community in Kelantan.


Most Nora movements are similar to Mak Yong — the differences come in with mask, costume, and story. In Manora, the King wears a typical cylindrical Thai pagoda-like head-dress and a very elaborate beaded top blouse with a curved tail. A Manora performance requires at least fourteen members: seven musicians and seven dancers. These are: The King (the lead), two clowns or court jesters, The Queen, The Princess and court maidens. The orchestra would be the similar to the orchestra used in Wayang Kulit or shadow puppet theatre.


Manora is usually performed on a special stage structure made out of bamboo with a painted screen as backdrop. In Thailand, much is made of the symbolic number twelve, which coincided with the twelve states of the old Nakhorn Sri Thammarat kingdom. These included the northern states of Malaysia (Kelantan, Pahang, Trengganu, Kedah) and provinces in South Thailand including Pattani. There are twelve stories in Manora, as well as twelve basic movements.


Manora in central Thailand centres on the story of a mythical kinnari bird and Prince Sutton. In Manora performances in South Thailand and North Malaysia, the main character the King is played by a man (in contrast with Mak Yong, where a woman traditionally plays the King). Manora still flourishes in South Thailand, both as state performance sponsored by the Fine Arts Department, and in the villages. In Malaysia, it is a dying art form with no continuation and old players. Manora is also used as a ritual healing ceremony in the Thai community and as a celebration at festivals in the Thai Buddhist temples in Malaysia.


Mak Yong


In contrast to Manora, Mak Yong is a form of classical musical dance theatre which is more "Malay" in style. It is noteworthy that usually a woman plays the role of the King in Mak Yong, which may result from the fact that Langkasuka was ruled by four great Queens for almost a hundred years during the 16th and 17th century. Perhaps Mak Yong was created after the kingdom converted to Islam and was ruled by these queens.


Mak Yong, is known in Kelantan and Pattani; also some forms of Mak Yong have survived in Kedah and Riau Island, south of Singapore. Unlike Manora, Mak Yong performance starts with a ritualistic dance called Mengadap Rebab "Respect to the Rebab", a three stringed fiddle. Mak Yong is also believed to have centered around twelve tales of Malay Kings and Queens. The king, played by a female lead, sings, dances and acts, in a black head-dress decorated with sequins and beads, and wearing a beaded collar on top of a Malay style costume. Experts surmise that Mak Yong originated from Jawanese deities and rice spirits known as Dewi, female goddesses. Some of the twelve stories also have similarities with Jawanese stories.


In Kelantan and Pattani now, Mak Yong is banned in public venues, due to both the ritualistic opening dance and the fact that females are performers. But Mak Yong is still enacted in remote villages as a healing form.


Manora and Mak Yong are essentially theatrical forms of dance, and neither has any counterpart in the southern part of peninsula (except for the vestige of Mak Yong surviving on Riau Island).


Asyik and Terinai Dance


Azanin Ahmad, the leading exponent of contemporary Malay dance today, has said, "When asked about Malay classical dance, people always describe it as in the middle between Thai and Jawanese court dances. But in fact it has its own style which we could refer to as present day Kelantan-Pattani".


Asyik and Terinai fall in the category of pure dance, as opposed to the theatrical dance of Manora and Mak Yong. Asyik is a classical court dance believed to have originated in the Pattani court of the Yellow Queen in the 17th century. The Tales of Pattani depict it as twelve court maidens who dance and sing, while Peter Flores in 1612 described Asyik as a dance of eleven dancers. Perhaps the eleven dancers consisted of ten performers who danced and sang with one Asyik Princess and one singer. The main part of Asyik dance consists of kneeling and sitting positions with movements depicting animals and their surroundings: ocean waves undulating, birds flying, fish swimming, elephants parading, and so forth. Some movements are similar to Mak Yong dance theatre. Asyik was normally performed by teenage girls of the court.


Azanin Ahmad utilised Asyik in her dance drama Puteri Saadong in 1980. In 1990 she was asked by the Kelantan Royal House to restore the authentic Asyik dance performed by teenage girls of the court for performances to be held in Kuala Lumpur, Singapore and Bangkok, as female dancing is banned by the Islamic government in Kelantan. The Ministry of Arts, Culture and Tourism jazzed up the repertoire to gain popularity as classical Asyik dance is extremely slow and elegant, normally performed for queens and kings. Dancers dress in kemban, wrapped in cloth from chest to thigh, with another piece of sarong underneath, a belt buckle on top and a little crown called Pemeles.


Terinai is another form of court dance in Perlis, north of Kedah and Kelantan. Though Terinai or Tari Inai is a court dance, it is less frequently performed compared to Asyik. It is only staged for very special occasions such as royal weddings and coronations. Tari means dance and Inai means the orange coloured herbs painted on fingernails, worn by the bride and groom a few days before the night of the wedding ceremony. This dance, because of its ceremonial nature, involves complex finger and hand movements in a continuous dance circle. It is a combination of dance forms found in Mak Yong, Silat and acrobatic postures called Meliuk, in which the dancers bend the body backward while standing with face looking down to the floor. In the past, this dance was performed by two men. The last male performer in Kelantan was injured in an accident, and now his daughter continues it. The last male Terinai dancer of Perlis died a few years ago.


As in the case of Mak Yong and Manora, Asyik and Terinai are also unique in having no counterpart in other parts of Malaysia.


Wayang Kulit (Shadow Puppet) Theatre


Shadow puppets (Wayang Kulit), thought to have originated in Jawa, are an art form existing throughout Southeast Asia. In Jawa shadow puppets received official court patronage, while this does not seem to have happened on the Malay peninsula. However, the sultans of the northern courts did support shadow puppets by having them performed for royal birthdays and other special events, with the result that today this form of theatre survives in a richer form in Kelantan and Pattani than elsewhere in Malaysia.


Three forms of shadow puppets once existed in Kelantan: Wayang Kulit Jawa, Wayang Kulit Siam, and Wayang Kulit Melayu (Malay), which is also known as Wayang Kulit Kelantan. Nowadays only Wayang Kulit Kelantan is still played by the Dalang (puppeteers). Perhaps the other two styles have merged into Wayang Kulit Kelantan. There are few old Dalangs who can play some parts of the other two. Cultural historian Mubin Sheppard believed that the connection between Wayang Kulit Kelantan and Wayang Kulit Jawa was indirect and may have been provided by a captive Khmer prince, Jayavarman II, who returned from Jawa at the end of 8th century to unify Cambodia.


Malay and Thai shadow puppet theatres centre on the Ramayana story, known as Ramakien by the Thais. Ramayana in the Malay Peninsula seems to have come from two different sources, in different forms, and perhaps during different centuries. At Melaka, the Ramayana story first arrived in the mid 15th century in the written form of Jawanese Sanskrit, but all figures in the drama were later changed to be Islamic characters and the story came to be known as Hikayat Seri Rama (Tales of Rama). Meanwhile, Ramayana entered Kelantan via oral tradition in the Wayang Kulit form known as Hikayat Maharaja Wana (Tales of Rawana), probably earlier than the 15th century.


Within the flux and flow of the history of Langkasuka, including the Majapahit II Empire of Kelantan in 14th century, the cultural history of shadow puppets (and dance theatre as well) went through many changes. The sources of the art form did not necessarily come from one point, but from various points at various times. Though Wayang Melayu (Wayang Kelantan) shows strong Jawanese influence, it took only Ramayama and not the Mahabarata Epic which is so important on the island of Jawa.


In Thailand where there are generally two forms of shadow puppet theatre, Nang Thalung from Pattalung and Nang Yai from near Bangkok, but these two terms are only used when referring to the Thai speaking puppet theatre. A form of Wayang Kulit theatre similar to the one in Kelantan is also present in the provinces of Pattani, Yala and Narathiwat with a different style of puppets from Nang Thalung and spoken in the Kelantan-Pattani dialect.


Mubin Sheppard recorded that there were about 300 puppeteers (Dalang) in 1969. Now there are only five prominent Dalangs in Kelantan and one in Kedah. The puppeteers and musicians of Wayang Kulit travel back and forth to the Kelantan-Pattani speaking area in Thailand for performances due to shortage of players. Generally, Wayang has been banned for public performances in Kelantan since PAS (Pan Islamic Party) of Malaysia ruled Kelantan in 1960s. Though the ban was lifted when Barisan Nasional Party took over Kelantan, Wayang Kulit began to disappear due to the arrival of other forms of entertainment. After regaining control of the state, the PAS government agreed to devote a special space known as Gelanggang Seni (Arts Court) as a venue for Kelantan artist to perform for tourism purposes. Performances elsewhere than within this space require special permits from the Police, although puppeteers are free to perform outside the state. Part of the reason why Wayang Kulit is banned is because of the ritual ceremonies that took place before and after the performance, not so much of the story that they told.


Silat Martial Arts


The ancient art of self-defence known as Silat is widely assumed to have originated from Sumatera some 400 years ago, but it is possible that it came to the Isthmus via Jawa, for the old people in Kelantan always refer to Jawa as the place to learn the spiritual form of Silat. Silat could be divided into two types, self-defence and Silat Tari (ritual dance).


Silat for self defence is widely spread out through out Malaysia with various schools and gurus. In modern times, Silat has become a competitive sport, moving into another level Silat Olahraga for sports at international competitions such as the South East Asian Games, Asia Games and Commonwealth Games. Though Silat was supposed to be performed only by men, woman also learnt Silat for self-defence. Tun Fatimah, the last queen of Melaka was known to be a warrior, fighting in the battles with the Portuguese. The tradition of warrior women is quite strong in Kelantan and Pattani, perhaps as a result of having been ruled by the four Queens in the 16th and 17th centuries. Puteri Saadong (Princess Saadong), the heroine of Pattani and Kelantan, was a 17th century princess famous for her strength of character. Taken to Thailand, she long resisted the advances of the Thai king; on return to Kelantan, she found her husband had married another woman and murdered him in the palace. Puteri Saadong took hold of the popular imagination in folklore because of her strong martial spirit.


At the highest level, Silat has gone beyond self-defence or sports, rising to another level of spiritual power Ilmu Batin. Ilmu Batin is knowledge beyond physical capability when one moves up into a higher stage of spirituality. Even in the present-day competitive Silat, they have different levels of expertise denoted by different coloured belts — and these levels imply not only a physical but a spiritual component as well.


Silat also has been said to be the source of many classical dance forms.

On the Isthmus, Silat developed into forms of idealised dance, known as Silat Tari. Silat Tari takes two forms depending on the occasion: Silat Pulut, presentation at weddings and ceremonies, and Silat Buah, choreography articulating pure beauty.


In Kelantan there is a special music accompaniment consisting of Serunai (wooden flute), two sets of long drums and brass gongs. Silat Gayong Pattani, a well known form in Malaysia, probably originated from Pattani and still survives today. Although Silat as self-defence exists in many forms throughout Malaysia, the idealised dance-like movements of Silat Tari, are uniquely Kelantan. Silat Tari may be the only survival of a very ancient Malay art form as it has very few traces of Hindu-Buddhist influences.


No discussion of Malay aesthetics, especially as they relate to martial arts, would be complete without mentioning Keris. Keris sum up the spirit of the Malays and symbolise power, both physical and spiritual . Though the Keris is no more in use as a weapon, it has become the symbol of Malay civilisation. The Keris is prized by individual collectors and is an indispensable part of many royal regalia. Keris Taming Sari, a spiritually powerful keris obtained by Hang Tuah, the famous Melakan warrior in the war against Majapahit, is one of the royal regalia of the Perak Sultanate, a direct line of the Melaka royal house. Keris Tajon (also known by the name of Hulu Pekaka), resembling a kingfisher bird, has been chosen as the formal regalia of the King of Malaysia.


Supported by the courts of old Langkasuka, keris carving on the Isthmus rose to a high art. Keris Tajon, for example, is only sculpted by carvers in Kelantan and Pattani even today. Keris Tajon is especially important as some believe it to be the original form of keris in the Malay world of the Peninsula. In fact Stamford Raffles in his History of Jawa recorded a tradition that the keris was brought to Jawa from the Malay peninsula.


Main Peteri — The Spirit World


Main Peteri is a form of ritual theatre only found in Pattani, Kelantan, and Trengganu. The name means "Playing Princess", as the dancer, a shaman in trance, enacts various characters including a princess, associated in the popular mind with Princess Saadong. The dancer "becomes" first one character, then another, as the trance leads him — and this could be seen as a metaphor for Langkasuka itself, a constantly shifting entity, with different capitals, religions, and courts at different times of its history. The central purpose of Main Peteri is the healing of human pain, but at the same time Main Peteri is a type of theatre, complete with dramatic tension, stage, props, and audience. It is normally performed in private venue for close friends, family and neighbours.


The shaman uses music and dance as emphasis and counterpoint to words chanted by Minduk, the spirit medium. Main Peteri is related to two other forms of Malay Kelantan dramatic art, Mak Yong and Wayang Kulit, for they share the same language, music, aura and world view. Main Peteri is a shamanistic delving into spiritualistic phenomena, dealing with what the people of the old world called Angin, "Inner Wind".


Main Peteri, closely connected to traditional Malay medicine, aims to ease spiritual pain. In fact Main Peteri is referred to at the same time as both dance and also as Berbomoh, the ancient healing system. Of course Main Peteri could not cure all ailments — its main aim was to cure illnesses of the inner spirit.


Angin "Inner Wind" has a meaning beyond wind as found in nature; the Inner Wind could be verbalised as one's primal needs and the wants, which when provoked or repressed will cause depression and rebellion. Angin is the essential make up of a human being, one of the Four Elements: Tanah (earth), Air (water), Api (fire), Angin (wind). Tanah is the material constituents of the human body Air is the shaping of this material and vital fluids animating human skin, the nervous system and blood flow, Api is our feelings and emotions, and Angin is life and soul. Earth, Water, Fire, and Wind, concepts from traditional medicine and shamanism, found expression in various ways in traditional Malay art, and many modern artists have adopted these concepts as important elements of their artistic endeavours.


The Spirit of Langkasuka


In looking at the arts of Langkasuka, certain traits stand out as a result of the region's distinctive history. One trait is the eclectic nature of the arts. From the earliest period a love of the natural environment permeates everything. Above this are strata from Hindu-Buddhist Sumatera and Jawa. These were refined with the admixture of court ritual, costume, and art motifs of Angkor, Siam, and China. Capping it all are the arts and traditions of Islam. This subtle mix of cultures and qualities is what has given Langkasuka arts their enduring power and fascination.


It's a paradox that while the northern states of Malaysia are known for their strong Islamic ways, they are at the same time the centre of shamanistic practices. But great contradictions are the other side of what it means to be "eclectic". The contradictions survived the centuries without the culture disintegrating because of another important trait of Langkasuka: conservatism. The attachment of the people of southern Thailand and northern Malaysia to "old fashioned" ways is often viewed as backwardness and weakness. But it could be seen as a form of inner strength. The people of the Malay Isthmus, like Sicilians and Koreans, other nations who saw a stream of rulers come and go, have long experience in preserving their inner culture through various dynasties, conquerors, suzerainties, hegemonies, and ideologies. While kingdoms rise and fall, the people remain resolutely themselves, and one may find in their conservative ways remnants of ancient wisdom going back centuries or even millennia.


The most destructive influences on Malay culture were first the Europeans since the fall of Melaka, and second "international modernism" of the later 20th century. Both of these influences, the old states of Langkasuka have resisted to the utmost. As eclectic as the culture is, it is remarkable how little was absorbed from the West, unlike the southern parts of the peninsula dominated first by the Portuguese, then by the Dutch and later by the British. During recent years, a form of vigilant Islam has been seen as having depressed the arts in northern Malaysia with various prohibitions and restraints. On the other hand, a turn to strong Islamic practices in fact protected the arts in some ways by raising high walls to the homogenized and simplistic state culture advocated by the "modernists" in Kuala Lumpur.


Another trademark of Langkasuka art that stands out in modern Malaysia, is the fact that most of the art forms were patronized and developed within royal courts. They are distinguished by the finesse and sophistication that only comes from the leisure and luxury of royal life. This is the result of another Langkasukan paradox: the continuity of the royal houses. Despite the many shifts of power and dynasty, the sultans of the Isthmian states maintained hereditary links that survived over centuries. In the rest of the peninsula, with the confusion of colonial conquest, most royal houses fell to Bugis invasions and afterwards never experienced long enough periods of wealth and peace during which to develop arts as they existed in the north.


One might say that in most developed traditional cultures, there are two poles of artistic expression: the People and the Court. The people, especially as represented by the villagers, are the final and ultimate source of it all, of course, but their arts are often raw and rough-edged. These arts, when adopted by a court, develop a wealth of expression and sophisticated technique that raise them to a higher level. Such, for example, was the case of Noh drama in Japan: It began as crude and even comic rituals performed by travelling players in front of Shinto shrines — only when the Ashikaga Shogun in the 15th century brought Noh into the court did it take on the sublime spirituality and intense refinement we see today. It was because of court patronage that dance and shadow puppets developed into the great arts of Jawa and Bali.


A core element in the development of courtly arts, although an unexpected and anti-intuitive one, is the fact the court and the village are surprisingly close. Marcel Proust pointed out that a snobbish Parisian princess was quite comfortable and at home with the peasants of her ancestral village. Peasant and princess are both tied to the land and its history, sharing a similar love of the hills and fields, and even speaking a similar dialect. In most countries the bond between the arts of the people and arts of the court has been a close one, each influencing the other. In Japan, folk ritual evolved into stately Noh drama in the court — and then the music and dance nurtured within Noh returned to the townspeople of Edo in the form of colourful Kabuki.


The same thing happened on the Malay peninsula, whereby folk dance went into the court, and developed into Mak Yong and Asyik, Silat martial arts gave birth to Silat Tari, and so forth. Later the arts of the court came back to the village and influenced the gestures and costume of folk dance. When, as in modern Malaysia, people know only their folk arts and not courtly arts, knowledge of culture is fragmented. Out of a broad glowing rainbow of cultural "colours" once available within the culture, only a monotonous basic blue or green remains.


The crisis of traditional performing arts in modern Malaysia would not be so severe if it were merely a matter of a loss of courtly arts. Folk arts are, after all, the spiritual basis of all the arts, and in their native communities in Sabah, Aceh, Sarawak, and so forth, they retain their integrity. But these are not the folk arts that most people see, especially in important governmental or cultural venues. Bureaucrats and choreographers have taken these folk arts and jazzed them up, adding lots of sequinned costumes, feathers, gauze, and gold embroidery, while syncopating the music with synthesizer sounds and rock-inspired drum beats. All this is done in the name of "modernizing the arts".


In the process, the raw spiritual power, the psychic essence of the villages and the forests, rivers, and seas that surrounded them, are drowned in a sea of cheap and even silly special effects — like Broadway or Disneyland on a bad day. What we see in these cultural performances belongs to neither court nor village. A brand new art form is now in the making, which we might call Ars Turistica.


This has a sad effect on modern Malaysians as they become better educated and aware of arts not only in the West but in the East as well. They see the sophisticated arts that Japan or Thailand preserve — and then they look at their own tradition and see only folk art tricked up with gauze and sequins in the form of Ars Turistica. It makes them feel that the Malays never were capable of a comparable level of culture to the West or even their neighbours in the East. This leads to a vicious cycle whereby modern Malaysians end up valuing their own traditional civilisation even lower.


There is hope for the performing arts of Malaysia because the arts of court and village do in fact remain, although far from the official venues propagating Ars Turistica. Genuine folk dance and music survive in local communities across Malaysia, a source of spiritual inspiration for all who might go out and seek them. Also, the courtly arts of Langkasuka survive as well, although in threatened form, in areas that once belonged to the old kingdoms of the Isthmus. These arts have taken a new direction in recent decades with the rise of strong Islam in the northern Malaysian states.


The arts and culture of the old Malay world were part of everyday life. Within that world the Malays discovered primal principles — one might say universal spiritual attitudes— that fit well with strong religious feeling in general and with Islam in particular. This is why the Malays of Langkasuka had seemingly so little difficulty in adapting their culture from Hindu/Buddhism to Islam.


Their natural surroundings and forest environment were great inspirations for artistic life. The wilderness of beasts in the jungle, the gigantic trees of the rain forest with sunlight slanting through the leaves and shining on little plants on the ground, the sweetness and fragrance of jasmine, cempaka, and tanjung flowers, the restless flow of rivers, the wild waves of the South China Sea and the continuous rain in the monsoon season are part of everyone's life. In addition to nature the old Malays drew inspiration from an oral tradition of tales of heroes and heroines, kings and queens. From this environment the ancient Malays derived their arts of Water, Wind, Earth, and Fire — essential components of what it means to be human beings. And yet today, connection with natural life is seen as animism and has not been accepted by popular and official Islamic society.


In Indonesian kratons, the sultans lost their official position centuries ago under the Dutch, so local academics and Islamic committees paid less attention to what they were doing. Hence in the kratons dances and rituals with animistic or Hindu/Buddhist antecedents suffered less scrutiny and continued as before. However, in Malaysia, where the courts have an official position within society, the sultans could not continue their patronage. They pushed the arts out of the palace and back into remote villages.


So the dances, Silat, shamanism, and keris carving described above have come full circle: Born among the people, they were refined within the court, and now they are the property of the people again. This means that they have become more rustic and raw than presumably they once were. Yet the dancers and musicians still play as though they were performing before the sultan. You can see one of these men, hardened by daily labour in the village pulling a cart during the day; at night when he picks up his fiddle or flute, he transforms into an exquisitely sensitive artist in a royal court of old. These performers and practitioners exist today in a special world of their own, belonging to both the court and the village at the same time — the hidden world of ancient Langkasuka.